Table 1.

Statements examined by Lieberman and Reynolds (1978)

1. “Races are the taxonomic unit below the species level, and if such units are not called race, ‘it still has exactly the same taxonomic meaning.’”

2. “Races vary from populations ‘differing only in that frequencies of a few genes to those grouping have been totally isolated for tens of thousands of years and are at the least incipient species.’”

3. “Clines (gradations) exist but it is necessary to distinguish clines between subspecific populations and clines within subspecific populations. Interracial clines are found in intermediate populations between subspecific populations or races.”

4. “Biological variability exists but ‘this variability does not conform to the discrete packages labeled races.’”

5. “So‐called racial characteristics are not ‘transmitted as complexes.’”

6. “Human differentiation is the result of natural selection forces which operate in ecological zones and such forces and their zones do not coincide with population boundaries. Furthermore, different selective forces may operate in overlapping ecological zones. Thus, ‘geographic distributions of more than one trait have no necessary correlation.’”

7. “Races do not exist because isolation of groups has been infrequent; populations have always interbred.”

8. “Boundaries between what have been called ‘races’ are completely arbitrary, depending primarily upon the wishes of the classifier.”

9. “No races exist now or ever did.”