Table 1.
Types and current applications of nanohybrid materials.
| Broad Application Areas | Specific Applications | NH Class | Specific Types | Citation | Environmental Exposure Pathway |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electronics and energy | Field effect transistors | CCNH | Fullerene-CNT peapods | [46,74,75] | Leachate; surface water |
| Graphene-CNT hybrid | [76] | ||||
| CMNH | Graphene-ZnO hybrid | [77] | |||
| Graphene nanosheet/metal nitride hybrid | [78] | ||||
| OMCNH | Graphene-organic molecule hybrid | [79,80] | |||
| Poly(3-hexylthiophene)-fullerene hybrid | [81] | ||||
| Energy storage/supercapacitors | CCNH | Graphene oxide-CNT peapods | [82] | ||
| CMNH | MnO2/CNT hybrid | [83] | |||
| CNT/RuO2 hybrid | [84] | ||||
| Graphene-Mn3O4 | [85] | ||||
| Lithium ion batteries/storage | CCNH | Fullerene-CNT peapods | [86] | ||
| Graphene-CNT hybrid | [87,88,89] | ||||
| Carbon nano-onions | [90] | ||||
| CMNH | Graphene-TiO2 hybrid | [91] | |||
| MMNH | ZnO-Au hybrid | [92] | |||
| Transparent conductive films | CCNH | CNT-graphene exohedral hybrid | [76,93,94] | ||
| Fullerene/CNT/graphene-oxide hybrid | [95] | ||||
| CMNH | SWNT-Au | [96] | |||
| MMNH OMCNH | Ag/TiO2 nanowire | [97] | |||
| Graphene-Ag nanowire | [98] | ||||
| Photovoltaics | CCNH | Graphene-fullerene hybrid | [99,100,101,102] | ||
| Optical limiting devices | CMNH | CNT-fullerene | [103] | ||
| ZnO-graphene quantum dots | [104] | ||||
| Graphene/TiO2 | [105] | ||||
| MMNH | Ag/TiO2 nanowire | [106] | |||
| OMCNH | Fullerene/CNT with porphyrins/phthalocyanines | [107] | |||
| dihydronaphthyl-fullerene | [108] | ||||
| CCNH CMNH | Graphene-fullerene hybrid | [109] | |||
| Fullerene-CNT | [110] | ||||
| MWNT-ZnO NH | [111] | ||||
| MMNH | Au@TiO2, Au@ZrO2, Ag@TiO2, and Ag@ZrO2 core-shell NHs | [112] | |||
| Fuel Cell | OMCNH | Oligothiophene-graphene, porphyrin-graphene | [13,113] | ||
| MMNH | Pt-Pd | [114] | |||
| CCNH | Graphene-CNT exohedral hybrid | [115] | |||
| CMNH | CNT/TiO2-Pt | [116] | |||
| Pt-reduced graphene oxide | [21] | ||||
| MMNH | Pd-Cu | [117] | |||
| Biomedical | Bioimaging and cancer therapy | CMNH | Quantum dot-Fe3O4-CNT | [118] | Atmosphere |
| MMNH | Au-Fe shell-core | [119,120] | |||
| MRI agents | CMNH | Gadofullerene | [121,122,123] | ||
| Drug delivery | CCNH | Fullerene-CNT | [124] | ||
| CMNH | Quantum dot-Fe3O4-CNT | [118] | |||
| MMNH | Au-Fe3O4 | [125] | |||
| OMCNH | Pluronic F-127/graphene | [126] | |||
| Parclitaxel-Au | [127] | ||||
| Environmental monitoring and remediation | Chemical sensing | CCNH | Carbon nanotube-graphene nanosheet hybrid | [128] | Leachate |
| CMNH | Pt-graphene | [129] | |||
| MWNT-zerovalent iron | [130] | ||||
| Graphene-iron | [131] | ||||
| Graphene-ZnO | [132] | ||||
| MMNH | Au-Ag | [133] | |||
| Pt/TiO2 nanotube | [134] | ||||
| OMCNH | Hematoporphyrin-ZnO | [135] | |||
| Biosensors | CCNH | Reduced graphene oxide-MWNT | [136] | ||
| Gas sensors | CCNH | Graphene-CNT hybrid | [137] | ||
| Contaminant degradation | CMNH | CNT-TiO2 | [138] | ||
| ZnO-reduced graphene oxide | [139] | ||||
| Pathogen detection | MMNH | Fe3O4-Au-Fe3O4 nanodumbbelland Fe3O4-AuNR nanonecklace | [140] | ||
| Au-Ag | [141] | ||||
| Antimicrobial | CMNH | CdSe-Au | [142] | ||
| Graphene-ZnO | [132] | ||||
| Ag-graphene oxide | [143] | ||||
| Heavy metal removal | CCNH | Carbon nano-onions | [144] | ||
| Bio-imaging | CCNH | Carbon nano-onions | [145] | ||
| Catalysis | Catalyst support/catalyst | OMCNH | CNT-enzyme | [146] | Atmosphere; leachate |
| CCNH | N-doped CNT-graphene peapods | [147] | |||
| CMNH | CNT/Pd | [148] | |||
| Graphene-Au | [149] | ||||
| MMNH | Au-Pd core-shell structure | [150] | |||
| Construction industry | Nano-reinforcement in composites | Pt/Pd-Fe/TiO2 | [114] | leachate | |
| CCNH | CNT-Graphene nanoplatelet hybrid | [151] | |||
| Structural health monitoring | CCNH | CNT-graphene nanoplatelet hybrid | [152] | ||
| Miscellaneous | Antimicrobial coating/paint | CCNH | Carbon nano-onions | [153] | Leachate |
| Temperature sensor | CCNH | Azafullerene-CNT peapods | [154] | - | |
| Heat transfer | CCNH | Graphene wrapped MWNT | [155] | - |
Abbreviations: CCNH, carbon-carbon nanohybrid (NH); CMNH, carbon-metal NH; OMCNH, organo-metal-carbon NH; MMNH, metal-metal NH; CNT, carbon nanotubes; SWNT, single walled carbon nanotubes; MWNT, multi walled carbon nanotubes.