Table 1.

Primary effect of indoxyl sulfate on the different types of cells involved in vascular dysfunction of chronic kidney disease.

Cells	Primary Effect	Reference
Endothelial cell	Induction of ROS	Dou [26], Yu [17], Itoh [27]
	Inhibit endothelial NO production	Yu [17]
	Increase endothelial microparticle release	Faure [28]
	Increase tissue factor production	Gondouin [29]
	Inhibit endothelial cell proliferation	Dou, Yu [17]
	Inhibit endothelial cell migration	Kharait [30]
Smooth muscle cell	Increase proliferation	Yamamoto [24]
	Inhibit proliferation	Mozar [31]
	Reduce tissue factor breakdown	Chitalia [32]
Leukocyte	Increase leukocyte adhesion	Ito [33], Tumur [20], Pletinck [34]
	Increase inflammatory cytokine expression	Lekawanvijit [35]
Progenitor cell	Induction of ROS	Wu [36]
	Inhibit NO production	Wu [36]
	Inhibit HIF/IL-10/VEGF pathway	Hung [37]
	Decrease in number and function	Hung [37], Wu [36]

HIF, hypoxia-inducible factor; NO, nitric oxide; ROS, reactive oxygen species; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.