Pleiotropic effects have been observed. Mechanisms of action still require elucidation for many of the observed effects, and ideal experiments discriminate among d-βOHB, l-βOHB, AcAc, and related compounds including butyrate and acetate, and the potential role of altered redox potential and oxidative fate. NLRP3, NACHT, LRR and PYD domains-containing protein 3; PGE2/PGD2, prostaglandins E2/D2.