Table 3. Disaster Stressors Associated with the 2011 Flood Threats by Disaster Phase.

PRE-IMPACT PHASE
Forces of Harm	FARGO ND	MINOT ND
Hazard	High perceived threat of major flooding Heavy snowpack throughout watershed: realistic expectation of flooding Rapidly rising river levels Overland flooding all around Fargo Media coverage of impending flood Official predictions a “major” flood stage (predicted: 12.3 min; flood stage: 5.5 min) Cumulative stress from annual threats every year since 1993 Stress from widespread inundation in 1997 Time-urgent sandbagging operations Time-urgent preparation/protection of personal property Winter storms during mitigation operations Potential for injury during mitigation activities	High perceived risk of major flooding Heavy snowpack upstream in Canada, North Dakota: realistic expectation of floods Rapidly rising river levels Overwhelm of upstream flood control structures Media coverage of impending flood Flooding predicted > 1 mo in advance Stress from impending unusual event – record flooding Predicted failure of floodgates and levees Compromise of upstream Lake Darling Dam and levees Emergency messages warning of flooding Evacuation orders Time-urgent preparation of dikes to maintain several major highways Reality that mitigation to protect homes in the steep valley along the river was not possible
Loss	Fears of city-wide losses if flood fight failed (breach of dikes, failure of levees)	Expectation of major unpreventable losses Lack of flood insurance coverage
Change	Redirecting community focus and actions to engage in the annual “flood fight” Citizen involvement in sandbagging operations (filling sandbags at Sandbag Central, placement of sandbags, patrolling dikes and river banks) Stress inherent in community mobilization Disruption of usual routines Impact on school/work/productivity Deployment of area students Evacuation from high-threat homesites Pre-impact sheltering	Protecting/evacuating valued possessions Activation of community shelters Evacuation to shelters Evacuation to homes of family/friends 48 h before high flows expected Sandbagging efforts Creation of earthen dikes Closing of schools, community centers and places of business Road closures Limited access to regional hospital

IMPACT PHASE
Forces of Harm	FARGO ND	MINOT ND
Hazard	No major inundation in Fargo Rapid water rise to peak levels Constant threat from river at major flood stage for > 3 weeks Ongoing fears of dike or levee failure Stress for citizens with individually sandbagged home sites – constant pumping/dike repair Physical fatigue Safety concerns Winter weather during impact phase	Catastrophic, record flooding in Minot Rapid river rise during flood stage One-quarter of homes (4,100 housing units) submerged Reconstruction and re-stabilization of levees and flood gates during water rise City “cut in half” by the flood waters disrupting transportation and access to vital services
Loss	No loss of life or life-threatening injuries Flooding of some households Moderate basement flooding common - with property damage	No loss of life or life-threatening injuries Loss of basic survival needs Loss or serious damage to 4,100 homes and many downtown businesses Loss of valued possessions Loss of access to neighborhoods Loss of essential services Major financial losses $509 million estimated event cost Extensive damage to infrastructure
Change	No shelter residents Constant surveillance and repair of dikes, sandbag barriers Staffing pumps 24/7 to control water seepage School closures Worksite closures/decreased output Decreased commerce	Federal disaster declaration 11,000 residents evacuated 4,100 homes uninhabitable Displacement to disaster shelters (shelter residents-less than 350) or alternative housing Flood waters bisected the city: extreme disruption of transportation Disruption of government, business, education, and medical services

POST- IMPACT PHASE
Forces of Harm	FARGO ND	MINOT ND
Hazard	Major flood stage lasted until May 1 River over flood stage until late August Impassable roads - difficulty commuting Hazards hidden in standing water Driving hazards on flooded roads	Protracted flooding Infectious disease risk from contamination Impassable roads. Boil water orders issued Mold risks Risks for collapse in flood-damaged structures Driving hazards on flooded roads Damage to roadways Hidden hazards in standing water
Loss	Loss of limited number of residences and structures	Loss of worksites/employment Permanent loss of homes Long-term lack of access to damaged homes that can be repaired Unsustainable financial losses for families especially those without flood insurance Major financial losses for area businesses Loss of several schools
Change	Re-mapping of evacuation zones Fine tuning of flood preparation strategies Ongoing discussion of long-term solutions including proposed flood diversion project	Relocation of students for Fall classes Long-term displacement for thousands: Temporary residence in community shelters. Medium-term sheltering in FEMA trailers (need to retrofit trailers for harsh ND climate) Living doubled up with friends/family. Domestic instability. Reports of substance abuse problems Reports of domestic violence