Table 1.
Family demographic, parenting, and child functioning by depression status
| Demographic characteristics | Total Mean (SD) or (%) |
Depressed Mean (SD) or (%) |
Non-Depressed Mean (SD) or (%) |
OR (95 % CI) | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Caregiver gender | |||||
| Male (ref) | 18.1 % | 9.3 % | 90.7 % | 4.52 (1.73, 11.79) | .001 |
| Female | 81.9 % | 31.6 % | 68.4 % | ||
| Caregiver types | |||||
| Birth primary caregiver (ref) | 76.5 % | 29.9 % | 70.1 % | .683 (.37, 1.28) | .146 |
| Non-birth primary caregivers | 23.5 % | 22.5 % | 77.5 % | ||
| Education status | |||||
| Primary or less | 47.7 % | 41.0 % | 59.0 % | 3.15 (1.81, 5.48) | <.001 |
| Non-standard | 8.3 % | 8.0 % | 92.0 % | 0.40 (.09, 1.79) | |
| Secondary or higher (ref) | 44.1 % | 18.0 % | 82.0 % | ||
| Marital status | |||||
| Single (ref) | 32.2 % | 33.3 % | 66.7 % | 0.69 (.41, 1.18) | .227 |
| Married or live with partner | 67.8 % | 25.7 % | 74.3 % | ||
| Employed | |||||
| Yes | 68.8 % | 24.1 % | 75.9 % | 0.63 (.37, 1.07) | .087 |
| No (ref) | 31.2 % | 33.7 % | 66.3 % | ||
| Food security (ref) | 51.5 % | 7.7 % | 49.7 % | <.001 | |
| Insecurity | 48.5 % | 49.7 % | 50.3 % | 11.84 (6.05, 23.18) | |
| Religion | |||||
| Muslim (ref) | 22.6 % | 22.1 % | 77.9 % | 1.12 (.53, 2.39) | .351 |
| Christian | 28.9 % | 24.1 % | 75.9 % | 1.84 (.92, 3.67) | |
| Catholic | 37.9 % | 34.2 % | 65.8 % | 1.45 (.55, 3.79) | |
| Other | 10.6 % | 29.0 % | 71.0 % | ||
| Number of household members | 6.41 (2.57) | 6.64 (2.61) | 6.32 (2.55) | – | .331 |
| Number of children < 18 years old | 3.79 (1.82) | 4.33 (2.11) | 3.58 (1.66) | – | .004 |
| Parental age | 35.92 (9.80) | 35.87 (9.92) | 35.94 (9.78) | – | .955 |
| Parental health | 2.58 (0.92) | 2.03 (0.91) | 2.79 (0.84) | – | <.001 |
| Social support | 4.00 (0.80) | 3.77 (0.90) | 4.09 (0.74) | – | .002 |
| Child gender | |||||
| Boy | 49.3 % | 27.1 % | 72.9 % | 1.07 (.64, 1.78) | .805 |
| Girl (ref) | 50.7 % | 28.4 % | 71.6 % | ||
| Child age | 6.51 (1.08) | 6.86 (1.16) | 6.38 (1.02) | – | <.001 |
| Parenting | |||||
| Belief about corporal punishment | 2.50 (1.05) | 2.80 (1.09) | 2.39 (1.02) | – | .002 |
| Harsh-inconsistent parenting | 1.80 (0.43) | 1.88 (0.46) | 1.77 (0.43) | – | .046 |
| Parent involvement in education | 4.09 (1.38) | 3.98 (1.62) | 4.12 (1.28) | – | .427 |
| Conflicted parent–child relationship | 2.36 (0.58) | 2.67 (0.57) | 2.24 (0.54) | – | <.001 |
| Child health and development | |||||
| Child health | 5.34 (1.24) | 4.48 (1.37) | 5.67 (1.01) | – | <.001 |
| Social competence | 2.38 (0.69) | 2.37 (0.69) | 2.39 (0.69) | – | .853 |
| Poor school functioning | 1.02 (1.33) | 1.34 (1.44) | 0.90 (1.26) | – | .010 |
| Total behavioral problems | 14.28 (5.35) | 16.54 (4.98) | 13.40 (5.24) | – | <.001 |
| Abnormal level of problem | |||||
| Yes | 33.3 % | 40.6 % | 59.4 % | 2.45 (1.46, 4.12) | .001 |
| No (ref) | 66.7 % | 21.8 % | 78.2 % | ||
Percentages (%) showed in the 1st column are demographic characteristics for the entire sample. Percentages showed in the 2nd and 3rd columns are % depressed and % non-depressed in each subgroup (e.g., male, female). OR (=Odds ratio) and p values are a result of the unadjusted association between categorical demographic predictors and depression (1 = yes, 0 = no). (ref) = reference group. N = 303 for the total sample, and N = 85 and 218 for depressed and non-depressed sample