Table 2.
Multivariable-adjusted† β-coefficients (95% CI) of association between individual-level sociodemographics and neighbourhood-level characteristics (exposures) and low, average and high neighbourhood cluster type‡ by income status using multivariate multinomial logistic regression, CARDIA examination years 0–25
| Low connectivity/amenities (n=545 (23.2%)) | p for equality of coefficients (low vs high income)§ | Average connectivity/amenities (n=409 (17.4%)) | p for equality of coefficients (average vs high income)§ | High connectivity/amenities (n=1398 (59.4%)) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Low income (first tertile) | |||||
| White¶ | −0.13 (−0.65 to 0.40) | 0.29 | 0.16 (−0.28 to 0.59) | 0.05 | 1.00 |
| Female | −0.07 (−0.39 to 0.26) | 0.0001 | −0.11 (−0.39 to 0.17) | 0.09 | 1.00 |
| Education** | −0.26 (−0.54 to 0.02) | 0.14 | −0.20 (−0.42 to 0.03) | 0.45 | 1.00 |
| Age (years) | 0.03 (0.01 to 0.07) | 0.16 | 0.01 (−0.03 to 0.04) | 0.15 | 1.00 |
| Neighbourhood deprivation score | −0.24 (−0.71 to 0.23) | 0.14 | −0.05 (−0.49 to 0.40) | <0.001 | 1.00 |
| Percentage white population | 0.01 (−0.0002 to 0.03)* | 0.36 | 0.01 (−0.004 to 0.02) | 0.002 | 1.00 |
| Percentage population ≤18 years | 0.10 (0.07 to 0.14)* | 0.25 | 0.07 (0.04 to 0.10)* | 0.48 | 1.00 |
| Percentage rental properties | −0.03 (−0.04 to −0.01)* | 0.10 | −0.02 (−0.04 to −0.01)* | 0.80 | 1.00 |
| Home price index | −0.002 (−0.01 to 0.01) | 0.15 | 0.003 (−0.005 to 0.01) | 0.12 | 1.00 |
| Neighbourhood land area | 0.35 (0.26 to 0.44)* | 0.11 | −0.10 (−0.20 to −0.01)* | 0.03 | 1.00 |
| Examination year | |||||
| Year 0 | 0.00 | − | 0.00 | − | 1.00 |
| Year 7 | −0.46 (−1.02 to 0.10) | 0.14 | −0.32 (−0.81 to 0.16) | 0.46 | 1.00 |
| Year 10 | −0.14 (−0.79 to 0.51) | 0.89 | −0.26 (−0.80 to 0.29) | 0.81 | 1.00 |
| Year 15 | −0.15 (−1.05 to 0.76) | 0.63 | −0.35 (−1.14 to 0.43) | 0.94 | 1.00 |
| Year 20 | −0.26 (−1.77 to 1.26) | 0.33 | −0.40 (−1.60 to 0.81) | 0.37 | 1.00 |
| Year 25 | −0.34 (−1.68 to 0.99) | 0.68 | −0.42 (−1.47 to 0.63) | 0.76 | 1.00 |
| Baseline city†† | |||||
| Birmingham | 1.38 (0.25 to 2.52)* | 0.45 | −0.31 (−1.20 to 0.59) | 0.13 | 1.00 |
| Chicago | − | − | 1.00 | ||
| Minneapolis | 3.40 (2.02 to 4.77)* | 0.97 | 0.67 (−0.49 to 1.84) | 0.21 | 1.00 |
| Oakland | 3.52 (2.04 to 5.00)* | 0.97 | 0.56 (−0.66 to 1.79) | 0.57 | 1.00 |
| Medium income (second tertile) | |||||
| White¶ | 0.04 (−0.72 to 0.81) | 0.16 | 0.30 (−0.10 to 0.71) | 0.10 | 1.00 |
| Female | −0.02 (−0.43 to 0.39) | 0.0001 | 0.01 (−0.34 to 0.36) | 0.20 | 1.00 |
| Education** | −0.40 (−0.81 to 0.02) | 0.07 | −0.31 (−0.64 to 0.03) | 0.30 | 1.00 |
| Age (years) | 0.01 (−0.04 to 0.07) | 0.20 | 0.02 (−0.02 to 0.06) | 0.08 | 1.00 |
| Neighbourhood deprivation score | −0.28 (−0.79 to 0.23) | 0.10 | 0.16 (−0.34 to 0.66) | 0.001 | 1.00 |
| Percentage white population | 0.01 (−0.01 to 0.02) | 0.15 | 0.01 (−0.01 to 0.03) | 0.01 | 1.00 |
| Percentage population ≤18 years | 0.12 (0.07 to 0.17)* | 0.42 | 0.08 (0.05 to 0.12)* | 0.65 | 1.00 |
| Percentage rental properties | −0.04 (−0.06 to −0.02)* | 0.04 | −0.04 (−0.05 to −0.02)* | 0.32 | 1.00 |
| Home price index | 0.0002 (−0.01 to 0.01) | 0.20 | 0.003 (−0.01 to 0.01) | 0.14 | 1.00 |
| Neighbourhood land area | 0.36 (0.24 to 0.47)* | 0.01 | −0.12 (−0.21 to −0.03)* | 0.03 | 1.00 |
| Examination year | |||||
| Year 0 | 0.00 | − | 0.00 | − | 1.00 |
| Year 7 | 0.07 (−0.69 to 0.83) | 0.77 | −0.23 (−0.86 to 0.39) | 0.61 | 1.00 |
| Year 10 | −0.16 (−1.14 to 0.81) | 0.92 | −0.49 (−1.29 to 0.32) | 0.49 | 1.00 |
| Year 15 | −0.23 (−1.53 to 1.06) | 0.71 | −0.52 (−1.62 to 0.59) | 0.90 | 1.00 |
| Year 20 | −0.89 (−3.10 to 1.31) | 0.60 | −0.89 (−2.67 to 0.88) | 0.56 | 1.00 |
| Year 25 | −0.74 (−2.68 to 1.19) | 0.91 | −1.24 (−2.84 to 0.36) | 0.70 | 1.00 |
| Baseline city †† | |||||
| Birmingham | 1.37 (0.0003 to 2.74)* | 0.38 | −0.58 (−1.39 to 0.24) | 0.36 | 1.00 |
| Chicago | 0.00 | − | 0.00 | − | 1.00 |
| Minneapolis | 3.66 (2.17 to 5.16)* | 0.76 | 0.21 (−0.74 to 1.15) | 0.70 | 1.00 |
| Oakland | 4.18 (2.44 to 5.93)* | 0.44 | 0.67 (−0.41 to 1.75) | 0.44 | 1.00 |
| High income (third tertile) | |||||
| White ¶ | −0.68 (−1.56 to 0.20) | − | −0.63 (−1.26 to 0.0001) | − | 1.00 |
| Female | 1.07 (0.59 to 1.54)* | − | 0.33 (−0.11 to 0.77) | − | 1.00 |
| Education** | 0.29 (−0.37 to 0.96) | − | 0.09 (−0.60 to 0.78) | − | 1.00 |
| Age (year) | −0.05 (−0.14 to 0.05) | − | −0.05 (−0.12 to 0.02) | − | 1.00 |
| Neighbourhood deprivation score | 0.21 (−0.36 to 0.77) | − | 1.04 (0.45 to 1.63)* | − | 1.00 |
| Percentage white population | 0.03 (−0.0003 to 0.05)* | − | 0.03 (0.02 to 0.05)* | − | 1.00 |
| Percentage population ≤18 years | 0.16 (0.07 to 0.25)* | − | 0.10 (0.02 to 0.18)* | − | 1.00 |
| Percentage rental properties | −0.04 (−0.07 to −0.02)* | − | −0.05 (−0.07 to −0.02)* | − | 1.00 |
| Home price index | 0.01 (−0.01 to 0.035) | − | 0.02 (0.0003 to 0.03)* | − | 1.00 |
| Neighbourhood land area | 0.22 (0.08 to 0.36)* | − | −0.27 (−0.43 to −0.11)* | − | 1.00 |
| Examination year | |||||
| Year 0 | 0.00 | − | 0.00 | − | 1.00 |
| Year 7 | 0.22 (−0.62 to 1.05) | − | −0.02 (−0.80 to 0.76) | − | 1.00 |
| Year 10 | −0.22 (−1.35 to 0.90) | − | −0.13 (−1.16 to 0.91) | − | 1.00 |
| Year 15 | −0.58 (−2.28 to 1.13) | − | −0.42 (−1.93 to 1.09) | − | 1.00 |
| Year 20 | −1.76 (−4.68 to 1.17) | − | −1.65 (−4.17 to 0.86) | − | 1.00 |
| Year 25 | −0.89 (−3.42 to 1.63) | − | −0.80 (−3.06 to 1.46) | − | 1.00 |
| 1.00 | |||||
| Baseline city†† | 1.00 | ||||
| Birmingham | 2.04 (0.41 to 3.66)* | − | −1.11 (−2.34 to 0.13) | − | 1.00 |
| Chicago | 0.00 | − | 0.00 | − | 1.00 |
| Minneapolis | 3.43 (1.79 to 5.06)* | − | −0.04 (−1.47 to 1.40) | − | 1.00 |
| Oakland | 3.55 (1.77 to 5.33)* | − | 0.21 (−1.19 to 1.62) | − | 1.00 |
Referent outcome=high road connectivity and activity-related and diet-related amenities.
*Statistically significant at the p<0.05 level.
†Covariates include examination year (time), baseline study centre, percentage of neighbourhood with less than or equal to a high school education and median household income ($).
‡Neighbourhood clusters created using non-hierarchical cluster analysis of measures related to connectivity and neighbourhood amenities, including intersection density (number of three-way, four-way and higher intersections per km2), links (count), cul-de-sacs (count), β-index (ratio of links to nodes), total road length (km), percentage residential (of total road length, km), distance from participants' residential location to nearest employment centre centroid (km), total park area within each neighbourhood (km2), and total physical activity facilities, supermarkets, co-ops and chain fast food restaurants (separately; count per km2 land).
§p Value obtained from the -test- postestimation command, which we used to test the equality of coefficients between the low-income and high-income individual-level income tertiles, and between the medium-income and high-income individual-level income tertiles.
¶Relative to black participants.
**Relative to participants with education less than or equal to high school.
††Relative to Chicago.
CARDIA, Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults.