Table 3. Risk factors for any helminth infection among TB patients and household controls without TB.
| Characteristic | Helminth infection, n (%) | Unadjusted | Adjusted | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yes | No | OR (95% CI) | p-value | aOR (95% CI) | p-value | |
| Participant | 0.054 | 0.18 | ||||
| Controls | 97 (33.8) | 278 (40.6) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| TB patients | 190 (66.2) | 407 (59.4) | 1.35 (1.00–1.82) | 1.29 (0.88–1.87) | ||
| Age group (years) | 0.30 | 0.46 | ||||
| 18–24 | 50 (17.4) | 144 (21.0) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| 25–34 | 115 (40.1) | 232 (33.9) | 1.46 (0.96–2.23) | 1.38 (0.89–2.17) | ||
| 35–44 | 75 (26.1) | 191 (27.9) | 1.13 (0.72–1.78) | 1.11 (0.68–1.82) | ||
| ≥45 | 47 (16.4) | 118 (17.2) | 1.16 (0.70–1.92) | 1.18 (0.69–2.03) | ||
| Sex | 0.003 | 0.24 | ||||
| Female | 93 (32.4) | 294 (42.9) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| Male | 194 (67.6) | 391 (57.1) | 1.60 (1.17–2.18) | 1.23 (0.87–1.75) | ||
| HIV status | 0.022 | 0.010 | ||||
| Negative | 242 (84.3) | 532 (77.7) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| Positive | 45 (15.7) | 153 (22.3) | 0.63 (0.43–0.94) | 0.57 (0.37–0.87) | ||
| BMI category (kg/m2) | 0.077 | 0.47 | ||||
| BMI ≥18 | 175 (61.0) | 460 (67.2) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| BMI <18 | 112 (39.0) | 225 (32.8) | 1.32 (0.97–1.79) | 1.14 (0.79–1.64) | ||
| Education level | 0.28 | 0.50 | ||||
| No/primary | 243 (84.7) | 563 (82.2) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| Secondary/University | 44 (15.3) | 122 (17.8) | 0.80 (0.53–1.20) | 0.86 (0.55–1.34) | ||
| Employment status | 0.13 | 0.42 | ||||
| Unemployed | 93 (32.4) | 256 (37.4) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| Employed | 194 (67.6) | 429 (62.6) | 1.28 (0.93–1.76) | 1.16 (0.81–1.65) | ||
| Number of people in the household | 0.66 | 0.97 | ||||
| ≤3 | 218 (76.0) | 69 (24.0) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| >3 | 513 (74.9) | 172 (25.1) | 0.93 (0.65–1.32) | 0.99 (0.69–1.42) | ||
| Household income per month (US$) | 0.47 | 0.75 | ||||
| ≤100 | 229 (79.8) | 534 (78.0) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| >100 | 58 (20.2) | 151 (22.0) | 0.87 (0.60–1.26) | 0.94 (0.63–1.40) | ||
| Individual deworming (past 12 months) | 0.043 | 0.12 | ||||
| Yes | 224 (78.0) | 573 (83.6) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| No | 63 (22.0) | 112 (16.4) | 1.48 (1.01–2.15) | 1.35 (0.92–1.99) | ||
| Occupational riska | 0.009 | 0.029 | ||||
| No | 136 (47.7) | 385 (56.9) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| Yes | 149 (52.3) | 292 (43.1) | 1.50 (1.11–2.03) | 1.42 (1.04–1.95) | ||
a Occupational risk for acquiring schistosomiasis (working in rice fields, sand harvesting, washing cars, and fishing)
BMI, body mass index; HIV, human immunodeficieny virus; US$, United States dollars (1 US$ = 2,190 Tanzanian Shillings in March 2016)
Multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression model with household as a random intercept, adjusted for TB status, age-groups, sex, HIV status, BMI, education level, employment status, number of people living in the same household, individual deworming status, occupational risk, and income level.
Note: interaction between the effect of HIV and deworming status on the risk for any helminth infection: p = 0.50