Table 5.

Summary of Significant Associations from Fixed Effects Regression Models

	Parenting Stress		Engagement with Children		Frequency of Spanking
	Mothers	Fathers	Mothers	Fathers	Mothers	Fathers
Frequency of aggression
Fathers		+
Mothers					−
Perpetration-victimization type
Mutual aggression	+			−	−
Mother-only		+	−		−	+
Father-only	+	+		−
No aggression (reference)
Which aggression type was related to parenting?	Victimization or mutual	Perpetration or victimization	Perpetration	Perpetration or mutual	Perpetration or mutual	Victimization

“+” indicates a positive association; “−” indicates a negative association.