Table 2.
Distribution of background characteristics in the study population from 10 selected developing countries1
| Background characteristics | Countries |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Armenia | Cambodia | Colombia | Indonesia | Jordan | Nepal | |
| Maternal age (y) | ||||||
| ≤ 19 | 2.2 (1.5, 3.3) | 2.6 (2.3, 3.1) | 10.5 (9.9, 11.1) | 3.0 (2.6, 3.3) | 1.8 (1.4, 2.3) | 7.1 (6.2, 8.0) |
| 20-34 | 89.0 (86.8, 91.0) | 76.5 (75.3, 77.6) | 72.4 (71.5, 73.2) | 71.4 (70.5, 72.4) | 69.5 (68.0, 71.0) | 81.3 (80.0, 82.5) |
| 35-49 | 8.8 (7.0, 10.9) | 20.9 (19.7, 22.1) | 17.2 (16.5, 18.0) | 25.6 (24.7, 26.6) | 28.7 (27.2, 30.2) | 11.7 (10.7, 12.7) |
| Maternal height (cm) | ||||||
| Short (≤ 145) | 5.3 (4.5, 6.1) | 2.8 (2.5, 3.1) | 0.7 (0.5, 0.9) | 11.1 (9.3, 13.3) | ||
| Average (146-155) | NA | 59.3 (57.6, 61.1) | 37.8 (36.9, 38.6) | NA | 25.4 (24.4, 26.5) | 61.1 (57.9, 64.2) |
| Tall (>155) | 35.4 (33.7, 37.1) | 59.4 (58.5, 60.3) | 73.9 (72.8, 75) | 27.8 (25.0, 30.7) | ||
| Sex of child | ||||||
| Male | 51.8 (49.2, 54.4) | 51.5 (50.2, 52.8) | 51.7 (50.8, 52.6) | 50.9 (50.1, 51.7) | 52.1 (51.1, 53.1) | 51.6 (49.4, 53.8) |
| Female | 48.2 (45.6, 50.8) | 48.5 (47.2, 49.8) | 48.3 (47.4, 49.2) | 49.1 (48.3, 49.9) | 47.9 (46.9, 48.9) | 48.4 (46.2, 50.6) |
| Maternal education | ||||||
| No education | 16.6 (16.2, 16.9) | 17.0 (16.7, 17.2) | 3.0 (2.7, 3.2) | 3.2 (3.0, 3.5) | 3.0 (2.7, 3.3) | 46.5 (45.1, 47.8) |
| Primary | 32.2 (32.8, 33.6) | 32.1 (31.8, 32.4) | 30.4 (29.7, 31.1) | 30.7 (30.1, 31.4) | 7.0 (6.5, 7.5) | 20.0 (18.9, 21.1) |
| Secondary or higher | 50.2 (49.8, 50.7) | 50.9 (50.6, 51.2) | 66.7 (66.0, 67.4) | 66.0 (65.4, 66.7) | 90.0 (89.4, 90.5) | 33.5 (32.3, 34.8) |
| Maternal occupation | ||||||
| Not working | 84.9 (82.6, 87.0) | 33.5 (32.2, 34.8) | 54.4 (53.5, 55.4) | 52.3 (51.2, 53.3) | 85.7 (84.6, 86.8) | 45.1 (43.4, 46.7) |
| Working | 15.1 (13.0, 17.4) | 66.5 (65.2, 67.8) | 45.6 (44.6, 46.5) | 47.8 (46.7, 48.8) | 14.3 (13.2, 15.4) | 54.9 (53.3, 56.6) |
| Marriage to first birth interval (mo) | ||||||
| First birth | 54.6 (51.3, 57.8) | 35.6 (34.3, 36.9) | 44.6 (43.5, 45.8) | 46.9 (45.8, 47.9) | 49.5 (47.8, 51.1) | 24.4 (23.0, 25.9) |
| <24 | 32.0 (29.2, 35.0) | 35.7 (34.3, 37.0) | 24.9 (24.0, 25.9) | 31.4 (30.4, 32.4) | 31.7 (30.2, 33.3) | 32.3 (30.8, 33.9) |
| 24-47 | 11.2 (9.2, 13.5) | 22.2 (21.1, 23.4) | 20.6 (19.7, 21.6) | 15.9 (15.1, 16.75) | 14.2 (13.1, 15.4) | 28.9 (27.5, 30.5) |
| ≥48 | 2.3 (1.5, 3.3) | 6.5 (5.9, 7.2) | 9.8 (9.1, 10.5) | 5.8 (5.3, 6.4) | 4.6 (4.0, 5.4) | 14.3 (13.2, 15.5) |
| Parity | ||||||
| First child | 47.2 (44.6, 49.8) | 38.4 (37.2, 39.6) | 44.0 (43.1, 44.9) | 40.0 (39.2, 40.8) | 23.4 (22.6, 24.3) | 50.6 (48.4, 52.8) |
| 2-3 | 49.6 (47.0, 52.2) | 43.2 (41.9, 44.4) | 44.8 (43.9, 45.6) | 47.2 (46.4, 48.0) | 39.0 (38.1, 40.0) | 40.4 (38.2, 42.6) |
| ≥4 | 3.2 (2.4, 4.3) | 18.4 (17.5, 19.4) | 11.3 (10.7, 11.8) | 12.8 (12.2, 13.3) | 37.5 (36.6, 38.5) | 9.1 (7.9, 10.4) |
| Took iron pills | ||||||
| Yes | 93.8 (91.6, 95.5) | 98.4 (98.0, 98.7) | NA | 86.8 (86.0, 87.6) | 96.1 (95.3, 96.7) | 97.7 (97.2, 98.1) |
| No | 6.2 (4.6, 8.4) | 1.6 (1.32, 2.02) | 13.2 (12.4, 13.9) | 3.9 (3.3, 4.7) | 2.3 (1.9, 2.8) | |
| Maternal anemia (Hb, g/dL) | ||||||
| Anemic (<12.0) | NA | 55.1 (53.2, 57.0) | NA | NA | 61.3 (59.3, 63.3) | 62.1 (59.7, 64.4) |
| Non-anemic (≥12.0) | 44.9 (43.0, 46.8) | 38.7 (36.7, 40.7) | 37.9 (35.6, 40.3) | |||
| No. of ANC visits | ||||||
| Inadequate (0 or 1) | 1.2 (0.6, 2.9) | 15.2 (13.7, 16.8) | 3.9 (2.8, 4.5) | 4.7 (3.6, 6.8) | 1.5 (1.0, 2.4) | 21.2 (18.6, 25.3) |
| Intermediate (2 or 3) | 4.0 (2.6, 6.5) | 25.2 (23.3, 27.2) | 6.3 (4.6, 7.0) | 6.9 (5.6, 8.5) | 4.0 (3.0, 5.3) | 28.7 (26.0, 31.4) |
| Adequate (4 or more) | 94.8 (93.0, 96.1) | 59.6 (58.2, 61.1) | 89.8 (89.1, 90.4) | 88.4 (87.8, 89.1) | 94.5 (93.5, 95.4) | 50.1 (48.2, 52.0) |
| Place of delivery | ||||||
| Facility | 99.9 (99.5, 100) | 72.7 (71.2, 74.1) | 98.6 (98.3, 98.8) | 70.2 (69.2, 71.2) | 99 (98.6, 99.3) | 35.3 (29.5, 45.6) |
| Home | 0.1 (0.0, 0.5) | 27.3 (25.9, 28.8) | 1.4 (1.2, 1.7) | 29.8 (28.8, 30.8) | 1 (0.7, 1.6) | 64.7 (51.9, 71.9) |
| Nutritional status | ||||||
| Low BMI | 15.6 (14.3, 17.0) | 3.8 (3.5, 4.2) | 2.1 (1.5, 2.8) | 19.5 (17.6, 21.5) | ||
| Normal BMI | NA | 72.7 (71.1, 74.3) | 49.7 (48.8, 50.6) | NA | 32.8 (30.8, 34.7) | 71.0 (68.7, 73.1) |
| Overweight | 11.7 (10.6, 12.9) | 46.5 (45.6, 47.4) | 65.2 (63.2, 67.1) | 9.5 (8.2, 11.0) | ||
| Wealth status | ||||||
| Poor (lower 40%) | 40.8 (37.7, 43.9) | 48.1 (46.8, 49.5) | 48.2 (47.3, 49.2) | 41.2 (40.2, 42.2) | 45.5 (43.9, 47.1) | 47.7 (46.1, 49.3) |
| Middle (middle 40%) | 40.5 (37.3, 43.7) | 35.5 (34.2, 36.8) | 39.8 (38.8, 40.8) | 39.8 (38.8, 40.9) | 40.8 (39.2, 42.4) | 38.4 (36.8, 40.1) |
| Rich (upper 20%) | 18.7 (16.0, 21.8) | 16.4 (15.5, 17.4) | 12.0 (11.3, 12.7) | 19.0 (18.1, 19.9) | 13.8 (12.4, 15.3) | 13.9 (12.8, 15.0) |
| Place of residence | ||||||
| Urban | 58.4 (55.23, 61.5) | 15.6 (14.8, 16.5) | 72.0 (71.1, 72.8) | 49.6 (48.5, 50.7) | 81.46 (80.5, 82.4) | 9.3 (8.7, 10.0) |
| Rural | 41.6 (38.5, 44.8) | 84.4 (83.5, 85.2) | 28.0 (27.2, 28.9) | 50.4 (49.3, 51.5) | 18.5 (17.7, 19.5) | 90.7 (90.0, 91.3) |
| Total (n) | 1426 | 5929 | 12 029 | 15 135 | 9734 | 1955 |
| Background characteristics |
Countries |
|||||
| Pakistan | Tanzania | Uganda | Zimbabwe | All countries | ||
| Maternal age (y) | ||||||
| ≤ 19 | 2.2 (1.9, 2.6) | 5.3 (4.7, 5.9) | 5.8 (5.2, 6.4) | 7.2 (6.4, 8.0) | 5.1 (5.0, 5.2) | |
| 20-34 | 78.0 (77.0, 79.0) | 70.2 (69.0, 71.4) | 72.4 (71.2, 73.5) | 76.9 (75.6, 78.1) | 73.5 (73.2, 73.7) | |
| 35-49 | 19.8 (18.8, 20.7) | 24.6 (23.5, 25.7) | 21.8 (20.8, 22.9) | 16.0 (14.9, 17.1) | 21.4 (21.2, 21.7) | |
| Maternal height (cm) | ||||||
| Short (≤ 145) | 2.0 (1.1, 3.6) | 2.9 (2.5, 3.5) | 1.1 (0.7, 1.9) | 0.6 (0.4, 0.9) | 0.6 (0.4, 0.9) | |
| Average (146-155) | 40.7 (36.7, 44.8) | 40.1 (38.7, 41.6) | 23.6 (21.4, 26) | 19.3 (18.0, 20.5) | 19.3 (18.0, 20.5) | |
| Tall (>155) | 57.3 (53.2, 61.3) | 57.0 (55.5, 58.4) | 75.3 (72.8, 77.5) | 80.1 (78.9, 81.4) | 80.1 (78.9, 81.4) | |
| Sex of child | ||||||
| Male | 52.5 (49.9, 55.1) | 50.7 (49.2, 52.2) | 49.8 (48.3, 51.4) | 49.8 (48.3, 51.4) | 50.8 (49.2, 52.4) | |
| Female | 47.5 (44.9, 50.1) | 49.3 (47.8, 50.8) | 50.2 (48.6, 51.7) | 50.2 (48.6, 51.7) | 49.2 (47.6, 50.8) | |
| Maternal education | ||||||
| No education | 57.2 (56.3, 58.1) | 25.4 (24.4, 26.3) | 18.1 (17.3, 19.00 | 1.8 (1.4, 2.1) | 50.9 (50.6, 51.2) | |
| Primary | 14.4 (13.7, 15.0) | 63.1 (62.1, 64.2) | 59.4 (58.3, 60.5) | 32.8 (31.6, 37.1) | 17.0 (16.7, 17.2) | |
| Secondary or higher | 28.5 (27.7, 29.3) | 11.5 (10.8, 12.2) | 22.4 (21.5, 23.4) | 65.4 (64.1, 66.7) | 32.1 (31.8, 32.4) | |
| Maternal occupation | ||||||
| Not working | 74.2 (73.1, 75.4) | 13.2 (12.3, 14.1) | 25.0 (23.9, 26.1) | 65.2 (63.8, 66.6) | 52.9 (52.6, 53.2) | |
| Working | 25.8 (24.6, 7.0) | 86.8 (85.9, 87.7) | 75.0 (73.9, 76.1) | 34.8 (33.5, 36.2) | 47.1 (46.8, 47.4) | |
| Marriage to first birth interval (mo) | ||||||
| First birth | 32.6 (31.4, 33.8) | 43.5 (42.1, 45.0) | 48.6 (47.1, 50.0) | 58.3 (56.7, 59.9) | 43.2 (42.9, 43.5) | |
| <24 | 28.7 (27.6, 9.9) | 36.2 (34.8, 37.7) | 29.6 (28.3, 30.9) | 26.7 (25.3, 28.1) | 31.0 (30.7, 31.3) | |
| 24-47 | 25.3 (24.2, 6.4) | 16.2 (15.1, 17.3) | 16.2 (15.1, 17.3) | 11.0 (10.0, 12.0) | 18.4 (18.1, 18.6) | |
| ≥48 | 13.4 (12.6, 14.3) | 4.0 (3.5, 4.6) | 5.7 (5.1, 6.4) | 4.1 (3.5, 4.7) | 7.4 (7.2, 7.6) | |
| Parity | ||||||
| First child | 33.9 (31.5, 36.4) | 26.0 (24.7, 27.3) | 26.0 (24.7, 27.3) | 22.5 (21.2, 23.8) | 35.5 (34.1, 37.1) | |
| 2-3 | 42.7 (40.2, 45.3) | 37.1 (35.7, 38.6) | 37.1 (35.7, 38.6) | 34.2 (32.8, 35.7) | 45.7 (44.1, 47.2) | |
| ≥4 | 23.4 (21.3, 25.6) | 36.9 (35.5, 38.3) | 36.9 (35.5, 38.3) | 43.3 (41.8, 44.8) | 18.8 (17.6, 20.0) | |
| Took iron pills | ||||||
| Yes | 92.9 (92.2, 93.5) | 98.7 (98.3, 99.0) | 93.2 (92.5, 93.8) | NA | 93.8 (93.6, 94.8) | |
| No | 7.2 (6.5, 7.8) | 1.3 (1.0, 1.7) | 6.8 (6.2, 7.5) | 6.2 (6.0, 6.4) | ||
| Maternal anemia (Hb, g/dL) | ||||||
| Anemic (<12.0) | NA | 59.4 (58.1, 60.7) | 74.9 (72.8, 76.8) | 72.3 (70.9, 73.6) | 63.1 (62.3, 63.8) | |
| Non-anemic (≥12.0) | 40.6 (39.3, 42.0) | 25.1 (23.2, 27.2) | 27.7 (26.4, 29.1) | 36.9 (36.2, 37.7) | ||
| Number of ANC visits | ||||||
| Inadequate (0 or 1) | 37.8 (33.2, 40.8) | 5.5 (3.7, 6.8) | 8.3 (6.8, 9.5) | 12.7 (10.2, 15.8) | 11.4 (9.8, 14.3) | |
| Intermediate (2 or 3) | 25.6 (23.6, 27.8) | 51.5 (48.9, 54.3) | 43.2 (40.6, 45.9) | 21.6 (19.7, 23.6) | 18.8 (16.2, 20.7) | |
| Adequate (4 or more) | 36.6 (35.1, 38.1) | 43.0 (41.4, 44.7) | 48.5 (46.8, 50.1) | 65.7 (64.1, 67.3) | 69.8 (69.5, 70.1) | |
| Place of delivery | ||||||
| Facility | 48.2 (47.6, 52.9) | 52.8 (45.6, 56.9) | 57.6 (45.9, 61.2) | 65.3 (59.2, 68.9) | 86.8 (86.4, 87.1) | |
| Home | 51.8 (48.2, 53.9) | 47.2 (42.6, 55.2) | 42.4 (39.5, 49.1) | 34.7 (29.8, 38.9) | 13.2 (12.9, 13.6) | |
| Nutritional status | ||||||
| Low BMI | 14.6 (13.1, 16.3) | 9.0 (8.3, 9.8) | 9.7 (8.5, 11.0) | 4.9 (5.3, 6.6) | 7.6 (7.4, 7.8) | |
| Normal BMI | 54.2 (52.1, 56.3) | 73.2 (72.0, 74.4) | 73.9 (71.9, 75.8) | 64.7 (63.3, 66.1) | 57.2 (56.8, 57.6) | |
| Overweight | 31.2 (29.3, 33.1) | 17.8 (16.8, 18.9) | 16.5 (14.9, 18.2) | 29.4 (28.1, 30.8) | 35.2 (34.8, 35.6) | |
| Wealth status | ||||||
| Poor (lower 40%) | 45.1 (43.8, 46.3) | 44.7 (43.4, 46.1) | 43.8 (42.5, 45.1) | 43.9 (42.5, 45.3) | 50.5 (50.1, 50.8) | |
| Middle (middle 40%) | 39.2 (38.0, 40.4) | 41.1 (39.8, 42.4) | 37.7 (36.4, 38.9) | 40.4 (39.0, 1.9) | 35.5 (35.2, 35.8) | |
| Rich (upper 20%) | 15.7 (14.9, 16.6) | 14.2 (13.2, 15.1) | 18.5 (17.5, 19.6) | 15.7 (14.7, 16.8) | 14.1 (13.9, 14.3) | |
| Place of residence | ||||||
| Urban | 29.1 (28.1, 30.2) | 20.3 (19.2, 21.5) | 14.2 (13.4, 15.1) | 29.8 (28.4, 31.2) | 42.0 (41.6, 42.4) | |
| Rural | 70.9 (69.8, 72.0) | 79.7 (78.6, 80.8) | 85.8 (84.9, 86.6) | 70.2 (68.8, 71.6) | 58.0 (57.6, 58.5) | |
| Total (n) | 1458 | 4325 | 4078 | 3862 | 59 932 | |
Values are presented as % (95% confidence interval).
DHS, Demography and Health Survey; NA, not available; BMI, body mass index; Hb, hemoglobin; ANC, antenatal care.
1
DHS sampling weight adjusted.