Fig. 2.

Biochemical and molecular targets of Guggulsterone. Guggulsterone exerts anti-cancer effects through activation or suppression of protein kinases, transcription factors, anti-oxidant enzymes, cell cycle regulators, proapoptotic and antiapoptotic proteins. GS exerts anti-inflammatory effects through suppression of nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB), which plays a crucial role in the inflammatory processes by regulating the expression of diverse proinflammatory proteins, including cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). GS fortifies cellular defense against oxidative stress by inducing the de novo synthesis of the powerful antioxidant enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). GS induces apoptosis by increasing the expression of proapoptotic proteins while decreasing the levels of antiapoptotic proteins (e.g., IAP1, XIAP, Bfl-1/A1, Bcl-2, cFLIP, Survivin, etc.). GS induces apoptosis by increasing the expression of proapoptotic proteins while decreasing the levels of antiapoptotic proteins (e.g., IAP1, XIAP, Bfl-1/A1, Bcl-2, cFLIP, Survivin, etc.). GS suppresses invasion and metastasis by targeting MMPs, FXR etc