Table 4.
Summary of neuroimaging studies using emotion-task experiments in different mindfulness conditions.
| Mindfulness condition (different models) vs control condition (Waiting list, or active control) | Study design | Population | Sample size: mindfulness (M) vs control groups (C) | Experimental task and neuro-imaging method: resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI), task based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG) | Main finding: summarized in terms of brain, and/or physiological response changes | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| DISPOSITIONAL MINDFULNESS | ||||||
| Dispositional mindfulness | Cross sectional/Uncontrolled study | Healthy | M: 27 | Affect labeling task during fMRI | Level of DM mediates the relationship between right vMPFC, right vLPFC activation and right amygdala deactivation | Creswell et al., 2007 |
| Dispositional mindfulness | Cross sectional/Uncontrolled study | Healthy | M: 27 | Viewing negative emotional faces during fMRI + rs-fMRI | Higher DM correlated with less amygdala reactivity. Also with less resting connectivity in midline brain regions (self-referential processing) | Way et al., 2010 |
| Dispositional mindfulness | Cross sectional/Uncontrolled study | Healthy | M: 46 | Viewing negative/positive pictures during EEG (LPP: late positive potential) | Higher DM correlated to lower LPP during high-arousal negative emotions | Brown et al., 2013 |
| Dispositional mindfulness | Cross sectional/Uncontrolled study | Healthy | M: 290 | rs-fMRI—local synchronization | Higher DM correlated to local synch in left OFC, left parahippocampal gyrus, right insula. Local synch in OFC-predicted positive affect, and in IFG-predicted purpose/meaningful life | Kong et al., 2016 |
| MINDFULNESS INDUCTION | ||||||
| Mindfulness induction | Cross sectional/Uncontrolled study | Smokers looking for treatment to stop smoking | M: 47 | Cue-induced craving during fMRI. | Reduced neural activity in sg-ACC [craving-related—emotion reactivity region] and a reduced functional connectivity between this same region with the bilateral insula and ventral striatum with no direct involvement of PFC regions (*) | Westbrook et al., 2013 |
| Mindfulness induction | Cross sectional/Non-randomized controlled study | Healthy | M: 24/C: 22 | Cued expectation and perception of negative pictures during fMRI | During expectation major activations in prefrontal regions: left AI, right and left dMPFC and left dLPFC. During perception reduced activation in right amygdala and parahippocampal gyrus [emotion processing reactivity] (*) | Lutz A. et al., 2013 |
| Mindfulness induction vs Reappraisal strategy | Cross sectional/Non-randomized controlled study | Healthy | M: 24/C: 23 | Cued expectation and perception of negative pictures during fMRI | Both groups: similar activity of the m-PFC and the amygdala. Major activations in MI group, during expectation: vLPFC, vLPFC, Supramarginal gyrus and left insula. During perception: major activity in the caudate in the cognitive group | Opialla et al., 2014 |
| MINDFULNESS-BASED INTERVENTIONS | ||||||
| Mindfulness-based stress reduction | Cross sectional/Non-randomized controlled study (novice vs those who attended the course) | Healthy | M: 20/C: 16 | Self-reference task during fMRI | Significant difference in the neural correlates of the self-reference task, during experiential focus an increased activation in right brain regions: lateral PFC, insula, second somatosensory area, and IPL | Farb et al., 2007 |
| Mindfulness-based stress reduction vs Waiting list | Longitudinal/Non-randomized controlled study | Healthy | M: 20/C: 16 | Sadness induction paradigm during fMRI | MBI group changed activation pattern in key emotion regulation regions: major activation in the right anterior insula, r-lPFC and sg—ACC. | Farb et al., 2010 |
| Mindfulness-based stress reduction | Longitudinal/Non-Controlled trial | Social Phobia | M: 16 | Breath focus task during fMRI | Reduced amygdala activity, major activation in precuneus, SPL, IPL compared to distraction focus task | Goldin and Gross, 2010 |
| Mindfulness Training (4 days) | Longitudinal/Non-Controlled trial | Healthy (pain) | M: 15 | Breath focus meditation during noxious stimulation task in fMRI | MBI reduction in pain intensity: major activation in ACC, anterior insula. MBI reduction in pain unpleasantness: major activation in OFC and thalamus (*) | Zeidan et al., 2011 |
| Mindfulness-based stress reduction vs Aerobic exercise | Longitudinal/Randomized controlled trial | Social Phobia | M: 31/C: 25 | Self-reference task during fMRI | MBIs during negative self-view: major activation in PCC, and dMPFC activity-associated less social anxiety disability and mindfulness level | Goldin et al., 2012 |
| Mindfulness-based stress reduction vs Aerobic exercise | Longitudinal/Randomized controlled trial | Social Phobia | M: 31/C: 25 | Emotion regulation of negative self-beliefs task during fMRI | MBI regulating negative self-beliefs: fewer negative emotions, major activation in R-IPL, R-SPL | Goldin et al., 2013 |
| Mindfulness-based stress reduction vs Stress management education | Longitudinal/Randomized controlled trial | Generalized Anxiety Disorder | M: 15/C: 11 | Affect labeling of emotional expressions during fMRI | Both groups less amygdala activation. MBI major activation in vLPFC. Increase functional connectivity between amygdala and PFC regions | Hölzel et al., 2013 |
| Mindfulness Training (6 weeks) vs Shared reading and listening group | Longitudinal/Randomized controlled trial | Healthy | M: 30/C: 31 | Affective Stroop conflict resolution task during fMRI | Both groups improved significantly in a response inhibition task. MBI reduced emotional interference, in negative emotion processing: increased bilateral dLPFC, right anterior insula and m-PFC (*) | Allen et al., 2012 |
| Mindfulness Training (8 weeks) vs Compassion training vs Health discussion group | Longitudinal/Randomized controlled trial | Healthy | M: 12/C: 12/Compassion Training: 12 | Observation of emotional pictures during fMRI | In MBI: decrease in right amygdala activation (all valences). In Compassion Training: trend increase in right amygdala response in negative pictures (*) | Desbordes et al., 2012 |
| Mindfulness Training (4 days) vs Sham mindfulness vs Placebo vs Control | Longitudinal/Randomized controlled trial (four-arm) | Healthy (pain) | M: 80 | Pain regulation strategy during noxious stimulation task in fMRI | MBI reduction in pain intensity: major activation in sg—ACC, anterior insula, OFC. Placebo analgesia: major activation in DLPFC and secondary somatosensory cortex (*) | Zeidan et al., 2015 |
| EXPERT MEDITATORS | ||||||
| Tibetan Buddhist monks | Cross sectional/Case-control study | Healthy | M: 14/C: 16 | Auditory stimuli during focus attention task in fMRI | EM: amygdala deactivation | Brefczynski-Lewis et al., 2007 |
| Tibetan Buddhist monks | Cross sectional/Case-control study | Healthy | M: 15/C: 15 | Auditory stimuli during active compassion meditation in fMRI | EM: increased activation in the anterior insula and ACC, proportional to compassion experience intensity | Lutz et al., 2008a |
| Zen Western vs novices meditators | Cross sectional/Case-control study | Healthy | M: 12/C: 8 | Observation of emotional pictures during active meditation in fMRI | EM during meditation: major deactivation of m-PFC and PCC. Relative deactivation of amygdala and insula vs novice meditators. Novice during meditation: downregulation of amygdala | Taylor et al., 2011 |
| Zen Western | Cross sectional/Case-control study | Healthy | M: 13/C: 13 | Noxious stimulus during fMRI | EM during pain: reduced activation in PFC, amygdala, hippocampus. Major activations in ACC, insula, thalamus. | Grant et al., 2011 |
| Vipassana | Cross sectional/Case-control study | Healthy | M: 17/C: 17 | Noxious stimulus during fMRI | EM during pain in meditation: reduced activation in lateral PFC, major activation in ACC, R-posterior insula | Gard et al., 2012 |
| Tibetan tradition | Cross sectional/Case-control study | Healthy | M: 14/C: 14 | Noxious stimulus during fMRI | EM: equal pain, less unpleasantness. During pain: major AI, ACC. Minor baseline activation AI, ACC, amygdala | Lutz A. et al., 2013 |
| Buddhist Western | Cross sectional/Case-control study | Healthy | M: 18/C: 26 | Dictator Game (DG) and Ultimatum Game (UG) during Skin Conductance Level (SCL) | EM: in DG reduced arousal, distress and SCL. In UG accept more unfair offers | Grecucci et al., 2015b |
| Buddhist Western | Cross sectional/Case-control study | Healthy | M: 26/C: 40 | Ultimatum game during fMRI | EM: in UG accept more unfair offers. Major activation of the posterior insula (interoception) versus anterior insula (emotion reactivity) in controls; major activation in somatosensory and posterior superior temporal cortex | Kirk et al., 2011 |
| Zen Western | Cross sectional/Case-control study | Healthy | M: 34/C: 44 | Monetary incentive delay during fMRI | EM during reward anticipation: reduced activation in caudate nucleus, major activation in bilateral posterior insula. During reward receipt: reduced activation in vMPFC | Kirk et al., 2011 |
| Buddhist Western | Cross sectional/Case-control study | Healthy | M: 28/C: 30 | Passive conditioning task during fMRI | EM during reward prediction: reduced positive and negative prediction error BOLD in putamen. Major activation in posterior insula | Kirk et al., 2015 |
*
Finding indicates bottom-up mechanisms.