Table 1.

Bioactivity of milk‐derived peptides on cardiovascular system

Bioactivity	Precursor product	Preparation	Peptide fragment	Effect	Reference
Antihypertensive	αs1‐, β‐casein	L. helveticus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae	VPP	ACE inhibitor	106, 107
			IPP
	α‐lactalbumin	Proteolytic enzymes	VAGTWY HIRL	ACE inhibitor	108, 109
	β‐lactoglobulin
	β‐lactoglobulin	Trypsin digestion	ALPMHIR	Inhibition of endothelin‐1, ACE inhibitor	104, 108, 109
			LAMA
			VKF
	β‐casein	Trypsin, pepsin, intestinal digestion	YPFPGPI	ACE inhibitor, opioid	17
			YPFPGPIPNSL
	α‐lactalbumin	Trypsin, pepsin, chimotrypsin	YG	ACE inhibitor, opioid	110, 111
			YLLF
			YGLF
			VGINYWLAHK
	αs1‐casein	Crescenza cheese	FFVAPFPEVFGK	ACE inhibitor	112
			FFVAP
	Yak milk casein	Qula cheese + alcalase hydrolysis	PPEIN	ACE inhibitor	113
			PLPLL
	β‐casein	Enzyme‐modified cheese Lactobacillus casei	LTLTDVE YPQRDMPIQ	ACE inhibitor	114
			PGPIP
Antithrombotic	κ‐casein	Chymosin and trypsin digestion	MAIPPKKNQDK	Inhibition of platelet aggregation and fibrinogen binding	29, 115
			NQDK
			MAIPPK
	Sheep κ‐casein	Enzymatic hydrolysis	TAQVTSTEV	Inhibition of thrombin‐induced platelet aggregation	31
			KDQDK
			QVTSTEV
	Sheep lactoferrin	Pepsin hydrolysates	RGDX		116
	Human lactoferrin		KRDS
	α‐lactalbumin	Instestinal digestion	GLF	Inhibition of collagen‐induced platelet aggregation	117, 118
			RGDGLF
Antioxidant	Casein	Pepsin digestion	YFYPEL	Superoxide anion scavenging activity	42
			FYPEL
			YPEL
			PEL
			EL
	α‐lactalbumin	Corolase PP	WYSLAMAAS—DI	Free radical scavenging activity	43
	Casein	Pepsin digestion	RYLGY	Free radical scavenging activity and ACE inhibitor	119
			AYFYPEL
			YQKFQY
Antilipaemic	β‐lactoglobulin	Trypsin digestion	IIAEK	Cholesterol lowering	5
			ALPMH
			GLNIQK
	Whey protein		Whey protein	Cholesterol lowering	120, 121
Anti‐inflammatory	Casein	Enterococcus faecalis hydrolysis	Casein hydrolysate	Leukocyte recruitment and PPAR‐γ dependent NF‐κB inhibition	80
		Bacterial fermentation	VPP	Leukocyte recruitment and JNK inhibition	68
		Pepsin and corolase	Casein hydrolysate	TGF‐β1, COX‐2, and NFκB inhibition	69
		Aspergillus oryzae hydrolysis	Casein hydrolysate	Suppressive effect on adjuvant arthritis	79
	Whey protein	Pressurisation of whey	Pressurized whey	Reduced expression of cytokines	70, 71
		Enzymatic hydrolysis	Whey protein hydrolysate	Reduced atopic dermatitis skin lesions	78
	Lactoferrin	Proteolytic cleavage	Lactoferricin	Anti‐catabolic and Anti‐arthritis	74, 75
			Lactoferrin	Inhibition of cytokine production	72