Table 3.
Linear regression models for the association between improved toilets and PPVT test scores
| Unadjusted | Child adjusted | Child, household and parent adjusted | Child, household, parent and community adjusted | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| n=1792 | I | II | III | IV |
| PPVT age 5 | ||||
| Improved toilets age 1 | ||||
| Ethiopia | 0.29** | 0.24** | −0.04 | −0.12* |
| (0.18 to 0.40) | (0.13 to 0.35) | (−0.15 to 0.06) | (−0.23 to −0.01) | |
| India | 0.44** | 0.48** | 0.27** | 0.40** |
| (0.30 to 0.57) | (0.34 to 0.61) | (0.14 to 0.41) | (0.09 to 0.23) | |
| Peru | 0.48** | 0.33** | 0.21** | 0.17** |
| (0.36 to 0.59) | (0.22 to 0.45) | (0.10 to 0.31) | (0.07 to 0.27) | |
| Vietnam | 0.39** | 0.31** | 0.20** | 0.08 |
| (0.29 to 0.50) | (0.20 to 0.41) | (0.10 to 0.31) | (−0.03 to 0.19) | |
| Improved toilets age 5 | ||||
| Ethiopia | 0.04 | 0.01 | −0.06 | 0.01 |
| (−0.05 to 0.14) | (−0.09 to 0.11) | (−0.15 to 0.03) | (−0.08 to 0.11) | |
| India | 0.33** | 0.33** | 0.08 | 0.09 |
| (0.21 to 0.46) | (0.21 to 0.46) | (−0.05 to 0.21) | (−0.05 to 022) | |
| Peru | 0.40** | 0.30** | 0.14* | 0.09 |
| (0.26 to 0.53) | (0.17 to 0.43) | (0.02 to 0.25) | (−0.03 to 0.20) | |
| Vietnam | 0.42** | 0.35** | 0.19** | 0.08 |
| (0.31 to 0.53) | (0.24 to 0.45) | (0.08 to 0.30) | (−0.04 to 0.19) | |
| PPVT age 8 | ||||
| Improved toilets age 1 | ||||
| Ethiopia | 0.60** | 0.39** | 0.13* | 0.01 |
| (0.48. 0.71) | (0.29 to 0.50) | (0.02 to 0.23) | (−0.09 to 0.11) | |
| India | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.09 | 0.04 |
| (−0.15 to 0.13) | (−0.14 to 0.15) | (−0.23 to 0.05) | (−0.13 to 0.21) | |
| Peru | 0.46** | 0.23** | 0.12* | 0.08 |
| (0.35 to 0.58) | (0.12 to 0.34) | (0.02 to 0.22) | (−0.02 to 0.19) | |
| Vietnam | 0.34** | 0.26** | 0.17** | 0.13** |
| (0.23 to 0.45) | (0.15 to 0.37) | (0.06 to 0.27) | (0.02 to 0.24) | |
| Improved toilets age 5 | ||||
| Ethiopia | −0.05 | −0.02 | −0.08 | 0.04 |
| (−0.15 to 0.04) | (-0.11 to 0.07) | (−0.16 to 0.01) | (−0.05 to 0.12) | |
| India | 0.27** | 0.28** | 0.16* | 0.20** |
| (0.12 to 0.41) | (0.14 to 0.43) | (0.02 to 0.30) | (0.05 to 0.34) | |
| Peru | 0.41** | 0.30** | 0.16** | 0.12* |
| (0.28 to 0.55) | (0.17 to 0.42) | (0.05 to 0.28) | (0.04 to 0.24) | |
| Vietnam | 0.30** | 0.25** | 0.17** | 0.17** |
| (0.18 to 0.42) | (0.13 to 0.37) | (0.05 to 0.28) | (0.05 to 0.29) | |
| Improved toilets age 8 | ||||
| Ethiopia | −0.30** | −0.06 | −0.07 | 0.01 |
| (−0.39 to -0.20) | (−0.15 to 0.03) | (−0.16 to 0.01) | (−0.08 to 0.09) | |
| India | 0.38** | 0.37** | 0.24** | 0.26** |
| (0.25 to 0.51) | (0.24 to 0.50) | (0.11 to 0.37) | (0.13 to 0.39) | |
| Peru | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.09 | 0.08 |
| (−0.03 to 0.29) | (−0.15 to 0.01) | (−0.05 to 0.23) | (−0.06 to 0.22) | |
| Vietnam | 0.28** | 0.25** | 0.15* | 0.11* |
| (0.17 to 0.40) | (0.13 to 0.36) | (0.03 to 0.26) | (−0.00 to 0.22) | |
*p<0.05, **p<0.01. All adjusted models include both improved water and improved toilets. Child variables include age in months at outcome, sex and language the PPVT test was administered in. Household variables are asset index and household moved between rounds when there is more than one round of data on household toilet and water. Parent variables are age and height of mother, years of schooling of mother, and years of schooling of father. Community variables are urban residence, community population, community wealth, presence of a community hospital, and community has a public secondary school.
PPVT, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.