Table 1. Included longitudinal quantitative genetic studies of emotional problems in childhood and adolescence.
| Emotional problems | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Study | Sample (Name, N) | Phenotype(s) (measure; reporter) | Age at each wavea | Genetic modelb | Phenotypic stability (% due to genes where calculable) | Influence of stable genetic factorsc | Influence of stable environmental factorsd C / E | Influence of new genetic factorse | Influence of new environmental factorsf C / E |
| Bartels et al. (2004)g | Netherlands Twin Registry (NTR): 1481 - 5115 twin pairs | Internalising behaviour (CBCL; parent) | W1: 3 years | Developmental model | W1-W2: .38 (52%) | 6% | 19% / 1% | 38% | 9% / 27% |
| W2: 7 years | W1-W3: .34 (43%) W2-W3: .62 (51%) |
22% | 25% / 3% | 14% | 9% / 28% | ||||
| W3: 10 years | W1-W4: .31 (32%) W2-W4: .57 (40%) W3-W4: .68 (38%) |
18% | 29% / 8% | 19% | 8% / 18% | ||||
| W4: 12 years | |||||||||
| Bolhuis et al. (2014) | Genesis 1219 study (G1219): 1597 - 2651 individual twins | Depressive symptoms & obsessive compulsive symptoms (SMFQ / SCAS; self / self) | W1: M = 15 years (12-21) | Cholesky decomposition | Depressive symptoms (DS) |
||||
| W2: M = 17 years (14-23) | W1-W2: .44 (64%) | 18% | (2%)/3% | (0%) | (12%)/55% | ||||
| Controlling for: W1 OCS | Controlling for: W1 OCS | ||||||||
| Obsessive compulsive symptoms (OCS) |
|||||||||
| W1-W2: .48 (63%) | 18% | (0%) / 4% | (0%) | (0%) / 52% | |||||
| Controlling for: W1 DS | Controlling for: W1 DS | Controlling for: W1&2 DS | Controlling for: W1&2 DS | ||||||
| Cherny, Fulker, Corley, Plomin, & DeFries (1994) | MacArthur Longitudinal Twin Study: 301 twin pairs | Shyness (home observation / laboratory task; observer) | W1: 1.2 years | Common Pathway model (developmental) | Home observation: |
||||
| W2: 1.7 years | W1-W2: .35 (92%) | 23% | 1% / 0% | 0% | 4% / 72% | ||||
| Laboratory task: |
|||||||||
| W1-W2: .29 (55%) | 10% | 7% / 0% | 0% | 25% / 58% | |||||
| Garcia et al. (2013) | Minnesota Twin Family Study (MTFS): 756 twin pairs | Trait anxiety (STAI-C at W1 / STAI at W2 & W3; self) | W1: M = 14.18 years (SD = .51) | Cholesky decomposition | W1-W2: .42 (58%) | 39% | (1%) / 4% | (0%) | (0%) / 55% |
| W2: M = 18.16 years (SD = .65) | |||||||||
| [W3: M = 21.46 years (SD = .77)] | |||||||||
| Haberstick, Schmitz, Young, & Hewitt (2005)g | Longitudinal Twin Study (LTS): 175-252 twin pairs | Internalising behaviour (TRF; teacher) | W1: 7 years | Developmental model | (Average across sex) | ||||
| W2: 8 years | W1-W2: .30 (100%) | 25% | 0% | 23% | 52% | ||||
| W3: 9 years | W1-W3: .21 (100%) W2-W3: .33 (100%) |
23% | 0% | 16% | 61% | ||||
| W4: 10 years | W1-W4: .19 (100%) W2-W4: .28 (100%) W3-W4: .36 (100%) |
30% | 0% | 6% | 64% | ||||
| W5: 11 years | |||||||||
| W6: 12 years | W1-W5: .26 (100%) W2-W5: .28 (100%) W3-W5: .28 (100%) W4-W5: .28 (100%) |
25% | 0% | 12% | 62% | ||||
| W1-W6: .14 (100%) W2-W6: .22 (100%) W3-W6: .28 (100%) W4-W6: .29 (100%) W5-W6: .38 (100%) |
28% | 0% | 10% | 62% | |||||
| Hoekstra, Bartels, Hudziak, Van Beijsterveldt, & Boomsma (2008) | Netherlands Twin Register: 14889 twin pairs | Withdrawn Behaviour (CBCL; mother & father) | W1: 3 years | Cholesky decomposition (rater bias model) | Rater-agreedh withdrawn behaviour: |
||||
| W2: 7 years | Males: |
||||||||
| W3: 10 years | W1-W2: .30 (87%) | 77% | 0% / 1% | 18% | 0% / 2% | ||||
| W4: 12 years | W1-W3: .27 (69%) W2-W3: .56 (50%) |
48% 25% |
1% / 4% 0% / 0% |
5% | 0% / 1% | ||||
| W1-W4: .28 (77%) W2-W4: .55 (68%) W3-W4: .63 (36%) |
59% 46% 13% |
1% / 1% 0% / 6% 0% / 0% |
7% | 0% / 1% | |||||
| Females: |
|||||||||
| W1-W2: .29 (72%) | 52% | 1% / 1% | 16% | 0% / 1% | |||||
| W1-W3: .27 (60%) W2-W3: .56 (39%) |
36% 15% |
6% / 7% 0% / 0% |
3% | 0% / 1% | |||||
| W1-W4: .25 (59%) W2-W4: .48 (63%) W3-W4: .58 (27%) |
35% 39% 7% |
7% / 2% 0% / 6% 1% / 0% |
5% | 0% / 1% | |||||
| Huizink, van den Berg, van der Ende, & Verhulst (2007)g | Dutch sample of adopted siblings: 106 biologically-related (BR) and 230 unrelated (BUR) pairs | Internalising behaviour (CBCL; adoptive parent) | W1: BR M = 12.5 years (SD = 1.2); BUR M = 12.4 years (SD = 1.2) | Common pathway model (developmental) | W1-W2: .57 (18%) | 23% | 24% / 34% | (0%) | (0%) / 20% |
| W2: BR M = 15.8 years (SD = 1.2); BUR M = 15.6 years (SD = 1.2) | |||||||||
| [W3: 26 years] | |||||||||
| Kendler, Gardner, Annas, et al. (2008) | Twin Study of Child and Adolescent Development (TCHAD): 1237 twin pairs, 16 single twins | Situational, animal, blood/injury fears (12-item rating scale; parent & self) | W1: 8-9 years (parent report only) | Cholesky decomposition (rater bias model) | Rater-agreedh situational fears: |
||||
| W2: 13-14 years | W1-W2: .44 (81%) | 25% | 0% / 6% | 44% | 5% / 20% | ||||
| W3: 16-17 years | W1-W3: .39 (87%) W2-W3: .78 (76%) |
23% 28% |
0% / 1% 0% / 13% |
18% | 4% / 12% | ||||
| [W4: 19-20 years] | Rater-agreedh animal fears: |
||||||||
| W1-W2: .52 (31%) | 8% | 14% / 10% | 36% | 28% / 5% | |||||
| W1-W3: .53 (15%) W2-W3: .88 (48%) |
2% 41% |
22% / 12% 7% / 2% |
2% | 9% / 3% | |||||
| Rater-agreedh blood/injury fears: |
|||||||||
| W1-W2: .39 (59%) | 12% | 3% / 2% | 55% | 15% / 14% | |||||
| W1-W3: .30 (90%) W2-W3: .80 (79%) |
17% 44% |
0% / 0% 1% / 10% |
13% | 0% / 16% | |||||
| Kendler, Gardner, & Lichtenstein (2008) | Twin Study of Child and Adolescent Development (TCHAD): 1237 twin pairs, 16 single twins | Mixed anxiety and depression (CBCL / YSR; parent / self) | W1: 8 to 9 years (parent report only) | Cholesky decomposition (rater bias AE model) | Rater-agreedh mixed anxiety and depression: |
||||
| W2: 13 to 14 years | W1-W2: .51 (77%) | 21% | 5% | 69% | 6% | ||||
| W3: 16 to 17 years | W1-W3: .48 (85%) W2-W3: .83 (85%) |
23% 34% |
(2%) 14% |
28% | 0% | ||||
| [W4: 19 to 20 years] | |||||||||
| Krebs, Waszczuk, Zavos, Bolton, & Eley (2014) | Twins Early Development Study (TEDS): 3644 - 7834 twin pairs | Obsessive Compulsive behaviour (ARBQ; Parent) | W1: M = 4.04 years (SD = .13) | Cholesky decomposition | W1-W2: .45 (75%) | 19% | (1%) / (3%) | 42% | (1%) / 35% |
| W2: M = 7.07 years (SD = .25) | W1-W3: .35 (80%) W2-W3: .44 (70%) |
8% 13% |
(0%) / (1%) (14%) / 4% |
33% | (0%) / 27% | ||||
| W3: M = 9.02 years (SD = .29) | W1-W4: .23 (78%) W2-W4: .32 (59%) W3-W4: .37 (72%) W4: M = 16.32 years (SD = .68) |
6% (2%) 8% |
(25%) / (0%) (0%) / 1% (0%) / 2% |
17% | (0%) / 38% | ||||
| Lau & Eley (2006) | Genesis 1219 study (G1219): 1820 twin pairs | Depressive symptoms (sMFQ; self) | W1: M = 14 years (12-19 years) | Cholesky decomposition | W1-W2: .58 (68%) | 26% | (5%) / 4% | 10% | (7%) / 48% |
| W2: M = 15 years (12-21) | W1-W3: .40 (76%) W2-W3: .45 (62%) |
16% 27% |
(1%) / 3% (1%) / (1%) |
0% | (0%) / 51% | ||||
| W3: M = 17 years (13-23) | |||||||||
| Lewis & Plomin (2015)g | Twins Early Developmental Study (TEDS): >3000 twin pairs | Anxiety / peer problems (SDQ; parent) | W1: 4 years | Cholesky decomposition | Anxiety: |
||||
| W2: 7 years | W1-W2: .38 (69%) | 14% | 6% / 1% | 30% | 10% / 37% | ||||
| W3: 9 years | W1-W3: .38 (58%) W2-W3: .51 (51%) |
10% 6% |
17% / 0% (0%) / 5% |
29% | (1%) / 30% | ||||
| W4: 12 years | W1-W4: .31 (73%) W2-W4: .45 (66%) W3-W4: .51 (60%) |
11% 10% 5% |
7% / 0% (0%) / 2% (1%) / 4% |
26% | (0%) / 35% | ||||
| Peer problems: |
|||||||||
| W1-W2: .29 (89%) | 10% | (2%) / 1% | 50% | (1%) / 37% | |||||
| W1-W3: .26 (100%) W2-W3: .45 (95%) |
10% 21% |
(2%) / (0%) (6%) / 3% |
32% | (0%) / 25% | |||||
| W1-W4: .24 (91%) W2-W4: .41 (82%) W3-W4: .48 (88%) |
7% 12% 10% |
(3%) / 0% (0%) / 2% (0%) / 2% |
42% | (0%) / 23% | |||||
| O'Connor, Neiderhiser, Reiss, Hetherington, & Plomin (1998)g | Nonshared Environment & Adolescent Development (NEAD) Project: 405 individuals including twins and full, half and unrelated sibling pairs | Depression (composite from depression sub-scale of BPI [3 raters], CDI [3 raters], and observational report; father/mother/self & observer) | W1: 10-18 years | Independent pathway model | W1-W2: .59 (64%) | 32% | (0%) / 18% | 0% | (8%) / 42% |
| W2: 12-21 years | |||||||||
| Plomin et al. (1993) | MacArthur Longitudinal Twin Study (MALTS): 300 twin pairs | Behavioural inhibition (IBR; observer) | W1: 1.2 years | Cholesky decomposition | W1-W2: .34 (100%) | 27% | (0%) / (4%) | 18% | (0%) / 55% |
| W2: 1.7 years | |||||||||
| Nivard et al. (2015) | Netherlands Twin Registry (NTR): 23,678 twin pairs | Mixed anxiety and depression ymptoms (ASEBA & CBCL subscale / YSR; mother / self) | W1: 3 years | Simplex model | W1-W2: .29 | 12% | 2% / 6% | 49% | 0% / 32% |
| W2: 7 years | W2-W3: .58 | 16% | 2% / 6% | 42% | 0% / 34% | ||||
| W3: 10 years | W3-W4: .63 | 11% | 3% / 6% | 50% | 0% / 31% | ||||
| W4: 12 years (mother report) | W4-W4a | 8% | 11% / 4% | 26% | 0% / 48% | ||||
| W4a: 12 years (self report) | W4a-W5 | 31% | 5% | 20% | 44% | ||||
| W5: 14 years | W5-W6: 59 | 12% | 5% | 38% | 45% | ||||
| W6: 16 years | W6-W7: .70 | 10% | 4% | 43% | 43% | ||||
| W7: 18 years | |||||||||
| [W9-30: 20 - 62 years] | |||||||||
| Schmitz, Fulker, & Mrazek (1995)g | Colorado twin sample: 203 - 260 twin pairs | Internalising (CBCL; parents) | W1: 2.8 years | Cholesky decomposition | W1-W2: .40 (10%) | (7%) | (26%) / (5%) | (30%) | (0%) / (32%) |
| W2: 7.6 years | |||||||||
| Scourfield et al. (2003) | Population-based South Wales twin registry: 670 twin pairs | Depressive symptoms (MFQ; parent) | W1: 5-14 years | Cholesky decomposition | W1-W2: .35 (19%) | (2%) | 40% / 2% | 23% | (0%) / 33% |
| W1: 8-17 years | |||||||||
| Silberg et al. (1999) | Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioural Development (VTSABD): 273 female twin pairs | Depression (CAPA symptom scores; child) | W1: 8-14.5 years | Reduced independent pathway model (incorporating life events) | Females only: |
||||
| W2: 9.5-16 years | W1-W2: .33 (92%) | 30% | 0% | 0% | 71% | ||||
| Trzaskowski, Zavos, Haworth, Plomin, & Eley (2012) | Twins Early Development Study (TEDS): 3644 - 7834 twin pairs | Negative cognition / negative affect / fear / social anxiety (ARBQ; parent) | W1: 7 years | Cholesky decomposition (correlated factors) | Negative cognition: |
||||
| W2: 9 years | W1-W2: .50 (69%) | 23% | 1% / 4% | 34% | 10% / 27% | ||||
| Negative affect: |
|||||||||
| W1-W2: .45 (59%) | 14% | 6% / 2% | 32% | 17% / 29% | |||||
| Fear: |
|||||||||
| W1-W2: .52 (67%) | 21% | 8% / 2% | 37% | 11% / 20% | |||||
| Social anxiety: | |||||||||
| W1-W2: .54 (71%) | 24% | 6% / 4% | 32% | 14% / 21% | |||||
| Tully, Iacono, & McGue (2010) | Minnesota Twin Family Study (MTFS): 756 twin pairs | Major Depressive Disorder (DSM-III-R DICA-R [W1], SCI for DSM-III-R [W2 & W3]; interview) | W1: M = 14.8 years (SD = .51) | Cholesky decomposition | W1-W2: .24 (33%) | (21%) | (4%) / (1%) | (5%) | (0%) / 68% |
| W2: M = 18.2 years (SD =
.65) [W3: M = 21.5 years (SD = .77)] |
|||||||||
| van den Oord & Rowe (1997)g | National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY): 436 full sibling pairs; 119 half sibling pairs; 122 cousin pairs | Anxious/depressed behaviour / dependent behaviour / peer conflict withdrawal (BPI; mother) | W1: 4-6 years | Genetic liability model (independent pathway model) | Anxious/depressed behaviour | ||||
| W2: 6-8 years | W1-W2: .43 (60%) | 28% | 18% / 0% | 0% | 0% / 54% | ||||
| W3: 8-10 years | W1-W3: .42 (60%) W2-W3: .45 (60%) |
26% | 18% / 0% | 0% | 0% / 56% | ||||
| Dependent behaviour: | |||||||||
| W1-W2: .42 (59%) | 26% | 19% / 0% | 0% | 0% / 56% | |||||
| W1-W3: .42 (58%) W2-W3: .44 (59%) |
26% | 18% / 0% | 0% | 0% / 56% | |||||
| Transmisison model | Peer conflict withdrawal | ||||||||
| W1-W2: .42 (69%) | 17% | 14% / 0% | 8% | 0% / 60% | |||||
| W1-W3: .43 (68%) W2-W3: .43 (68%) |
14% | 15% / 0% | 8% | 0% / 64% | |||||
| van der Valk, van den Oord, Verhulst, & Boomsma (2003)g | Netherlands Twin Registry (NTR): 1924 - 3873 | Internalising behaviour (CBCL; parent) | W1: 3 years | Indpendent pathway model | Males: | ||||
| W2: 7 years | W1-W2: .35 (70%) | 24% | 8% / 4% | 22% | 18% / 24% | ||||
| Females: | |||||||||
| W1-W2: .41(58%) | 23% | 8% / 4% | 11% | 27% / 27% | |||||
| van der Valk, Verhulst, Neale, & Boomsma (1998)g | Dutch Adoption Sample: 222 biologically related adolescents adopted together (BR); 422 unrelated adolescents adopted together (BUR); 1484 adolescents adopted singly (AS) | Internalising (CBCL; Parent) | W1: 10-15 years W2: 14-17 years |
Cholesky decomposition | W1-W2: .59 (19%) | (8%) | 29% / 7% | (0%) | (4%) / 51% |
| van Grootheest et al. (2007) | Netherlands Twin Register: 8083 twin pairs | Obsessive Compulsive behaviour (CBCL subscale; parents) | W1: 7 years | Cholesky decomposition (rater bias model) | Males: | ||||
| W2: 10 years | Father ratings: | ||||||||
| W3: 12 years | W1-W2: .51 (44%) | Information unavailable | |||||||
| W1-W3: .44 (43%) W2-W3: .54 (19%) |
|||||||||
| Mother ratings: | |||||||||
| W1-W2: .55 (57%) | Information unavailable | ||||||||
| W1-W3: .43 (54%) W2-W3: .58 (43%) |
|||||||||
| Females: | |||||||||
| Father ratings: | |||||||||
| W1-W2: .53 (34%) | Information unavailable | ||||||||
| W1-W3: .44 (35%) W2-W3: .52 (16%) |
|||||||||
| Mother ratings: | |||||||||
| W1-W2: .55 (40%) | Information unavailable | ||||||||
| W1-W3: .47 (27%) W2-W3: .58 (36%) |
|||||||||
| Waszczuk, Zavos & Eley (2013) | Emotions, Cognitions, Heredity and Outcome (ECHO): 300 twin pairs | Anxiety symptoms (SCARED; self-report) | W1: 8 years | Cholesky decomposition. | Panic | ||||
| W2: 10 years | W1-W2: .36 (65%) | 28% | (2%) | (0%. | (0%) / 67% | ||||
| Controlling for: W1 Anxiety Sensitivity | |||||||||
| Separation Anxiety | |||||||||
| W1-W2: .35 (89%) | 35% | (1%) | (0%) | (0%) / 61% | |||||
| Controlling for: W1 Anxiety Sensitivity | |||||||||
| Generalized Anxiety | |||||||||
| W1-W2: .37 (66%) | 29% | (1%) | (0%) | (0%) / 67% | |||||
| Controlling for: W1 Anxiety Sensitivity | |||||||||
| Waszczuk et al. (2016) | Genesis 12-19: 896-1,372 twin and sibling pairs | Depression / anxiety disorder symptoms: panic; generalised anxiety; separation anxiety; social anxiety (SMFQ / SCAS; self) | W1: 12-21 years | Cholesky decomposition | Depression: | ||||
| W2: 14-23 years | W1-W2: .47 (83%) | 29% | (0%) / 2% | 18% | (0%) / 51% | ||||
| [W3: 18-27 years] | Panic: | ||||||||
| W1-W2: .43 (60%) | 17% | (0%) / 3% | 25% | (0%) / 54% | |||||
| Generalized anxiety: | |||||||||
| W1-W2: .47 (66%) | 21% | (0%) / 5% | 18% | (0%) / 56% | |||||
| Separation anxiety: | |||||||||
| W1-W2: .36 (67%) | 14% | (0%) / (1%) | 27% | (0%) / 59% | |||||
| Social anxiety: | |||||||||
| W1-W2: .53 (58%) | 23% | (0%) / 8% | 15% | (0%) / 54% | |||||
| Zavos, Gregory, & Eley (2012) | Genesis 1219 study (G1219): > 1300 twin pairs | Anxiety sensitivity (CASI at W1&2 / ASI W3; self) | W1: M = 14 years (12-19) | Cholesky decomposition (AE model) | W1-W2: .47 (51%) | 13% | 9% | 19% | 59% |
| W2: M = 15 years (12-21) | W1-W3: .37 (81%) W2-W3: .48 (67%) |
20% 14% |
1% 3% |
(1%) | 61% | ||||
| W3: M = 17 years (14-23) | |||||||||
| [W4: M = 20 years (19-27)] | |||||||||
Notes –
a
Mean (M) age given with range and standard deviation (SD) if available; where no range is presented this is because the information was unavailable and is not necessarily indicative of participants being the same age
b
Models estimated additive genetic (A), common environmental (C) and unique environmental (E) components of variance unless otherwise stated;
c / d
Results for influence of stable genetic and environmental factors given as % phenotypic variance in later wave(s) explained by factors from earlier wave(s) where possible; values are aligned with phenotypic stability coefficients in adjacent column – i.e. for values aligned with W2-W3 phenotypic stability, % variance explained is at W3 by stable factors from W2; where single values align with a group of stability coefficients, % variance explained is by stable factors from all prior waves; environmental factors are presented as C / E – where C was not estimated at all in the presented model, only one value is given; non-significant values are given in parentheses where known;
e / f
Results for influence of new genetic and environmental factors given in same format as above; only one value is presented per parameter per wave, in alignment with the appropriate group of phenotypic correlations, i.e. values centrally aligned with W1-W3 and W2-W3 stability coefficients are new aetiological factors at W3;
g
Study includes measures of both internalising and externalising and is therefore included in both tables
h
All results (including correlations) pertain to latent factor rather than observed variables; rater-specific (in case of rater bias models) and scale-specific (in case of common pathway – phenotypic models) error not included
Measures: CBCL: Child Behaviour Checklist; TRF: Teacher Report Form; YSR: Youth Self Report form; SDQ: Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; BPI: Behaviour Problem Index; (S)MFQ: (Short) Mood and Feelings Questionnaire; SCAS: Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale; STAI-C: Spielberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children; ARBQ: Anxiety-Related Behaviours Questionnaire; CDI: Child Depression Inventory; IBR: Infant Behaviour Record; ASEBA: Achenbach System of Empirically Based Measurement; CAPA: Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment; SCI: Structure Clinical Interview; DSM-III-R: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual III (Revised); DICA-R: Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (Revised); (C)ASI: (Child) Anxiety Sensitivity Index