Table 2. Prevalence of Axis I disordersa among prisoners with and without childhood-onset conduct disorder.
| Total (n = 267–270) | COCD (n = 72–73) | LOVB (n = 192–195) | Pb | OR (95% CI)c | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | |||
| Any mood disorder | 145 (54) | 50 (69) | 95 (49) | 0.004* | 2.3 (1.3–4.0) |
| Major depressive disorder | 131 (49) | 43 (59) | 88 (45) | 0.045 | 1.7 (1.0–3.0) |
| Bipolar disorder | 14 (5) | 7 (10) | 7 (4) | 0.051 | 2.8 (1.0–8.4) |
| Any anxiety disorder | 138 (52) | 46 (64) | 92 (47) | 0.016 | 2.0 (1.1–3.5) |
| Panic disorder and/or agoraphobia | 79 (30) | 26 (36) | 53 (27) | 0.160 | 1.5 (0.9–2.7) |
| Specific phobia | 9 (3) | 2 (3) | 7 (4) | 0.803 | 0.8 (0.2–3.8) |
| Social phobia | 7 (3) | 4 (6) | 3 (2) | 0.072 | 3.8 (0.8–17.3) |
| Obsessive–compulsive disorder | 22 (8) | 12 (17) | 10 (5) | 0.003* | 3.7 (1.5–9.0) |
| Post-traumatic stress disorder | 28 (11) | 9 (13) | 19 (10) | 0.596 | 1.3 (0.6–3.1) |
| Generalised anxiety disorder | 5 (2) | 2 (3) | 3 (2) | 0.596 | 1.8 (0.3–11.2) |
| Acute stress disorder | 13 (5) | 5 (7) | 8 (4) | 0.387 | 1.7 (0.6–5.5) |
| Substance-induced anxiety | 22 (8) | 7 (10) | 15 (8) | 0.732 | 1.3 (0.5–3.3) |
| Any substance use disorder | 226 (84) | 68 (93) | 158 (81) | 0.015 | 3.2 (1.2–8.5) |
| Alcohol | 130 (49) | 43 (59) | 87 (45) | 0.039 | 1.8 (1.0–3.1) |
| Cannabis | 206 (77) | 64 (88) | 142 (73) | 0.012 | 2.6 (1.2–5.6) |
| Stimulants | 156 (59) | 50 (69) | 106 (55) | 0.046 | 1.8 (1.0–3.1) |
| Hallucinogens | 90 (34) | 33 (45) | 57 (30) | 0.016 | 2.0 (1.1–3.4) |
| Sedative–hypnotic–anxiolytic | 129 (49) | 44 (60) | 86 (45) | 0.018 | 1.9 (1.1–3.3) |
| Heroin | 90 (34) | 31 (43) | 59 (31) | 0.069 | 1.7 (1.0–2.9) |
| Opioid analgesics | 111 (42) | 35 (48) | 76 (39) | 0.202 | 1.4 (0.8–2.5) |
| Other substances | 113 (57) | 42 (58) | 71 (37) | 0.002* | 2.4 (1.4–4.1) |
| Any psychotic disorder | 22 (8) | 13 (18) | 8 (4) | 0.0003* | 5.1 (2.0–12.8) |
| Somatisation disorder | 1 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (1) | 0.726 | NA |
| Any eating disorder | 3 (1) | 0 (0) | 3 (2) | 0.325 | NA |
| Any impulse control disorder | 56 (21) | 20 (27) | 35 (18) | 0.119 | 1.7 (0.9–3.1) |
| Intermittent explosive disorder | 10 (4) | 5 (7) | 5 (3) | 0.115 | 2.8 (0.8–9.8) |
| Kleptomania | 5 (2) | 0 (0) | 5 (3) | 0.187 | NA |
| Pyromania | 3 (1) | 1 (1) | 2 (1) | 0.872 | 1.3 (0.1–15.1) |
| Pathological gambling | 43 (16) | 15 (21) | 28 (15) | 0.228 | 1.6 (0.8–3.1) |
| Dissociative disorder | 2 (1) | 2 (3) | 0 (0) | 0.026 | NA |
| Any sexual disorder | 3 (1) | 2 (3) | 1 (1) | 0.139 | 5.4 (0.5–60.9) |
| ≥1 Axis I disorder | 250 (93) | 72 (99) | 178 (91) | 0.038 | 6.9 (0.9–52.6) |
| ≥3 Axis I disordersa | 114 (43) | 43 (59) | 71 (36) | 0.001* | 2.5 (1.4–4.3) |
COCD, childhood-onset conduct disorder; LOVB, late onset of violent behaviour; NA, not applicable.
a
Except neurodevelopmental disorders.
b
P-value corrected by the Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) procedure.
*
Values marked with an asterisk remain significant after FDR correction.
c
Odds ratios (OR) <1.0 indicate lower risk, OR>1.0 indicate higher risk. Clinically meaningful effects defined as OR≥2.0 or ≤0.5.