Table 2.
Variables of Included Research for Systematic Review Identifying Predictors of Increased Likelihood of Breastfeeding Within the WIC Population.
| First author, year | Research design | Participant characteristics | State | Study description | Data collection |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Campbell, 2014 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants: no prior breastfeeding experience | TX | Determined PC contact with breastfeeding initiation rates among primiparas and women with no prior breastfeeding experience | Infant Feeding Practices Survey |
| Cricco-Lizza, 2004 | Ethnographic | WIC participants and their relatives or friends | NY | Explored context of infant-feeding decisions in an urban WIC clinic | Participant observation; interviews; key informants |
| Cricco-Lizza, 2005 | Ethnographic | WIC participants and their relatives or friends | NY | Explored context of infant-feeding decisions in an urban WIC clinic | Participant observation; interviews; key informants |
| Cross-Barnet, 2012 | Qualitative | WIC participants: with infants; met at least once with PC | MD | Explored infant-feeding education and support experiences of mothers | Semistructured interviews |
| Darfour-Oduro, 2014 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants: mother–infant dyads; biological mothers | IL | Understanding of mothers’ social environments and well-being in postnatal period, including breastfeeding initiation and duration to 3 months | Survey |
| Dodgson, 2007 | Retrospective | WIC participants: postpartum; initiated breastfeeding | HI | Description of breastfeeding patterns of women who had initiated breastfeeding | WIC participant data |
| Fornasaro-Donahue, 2014 | Mixed methods descriptive | WIC participants: pregnant or nonbreastfeeding women with infant age 1-4 months | RI | Assessed cost of formula as a motivator and deciding factor in breastfeeding decision | Surveys; interviews |
| Gross, 2009 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants | MD | Determined rates of breastfeeding initiation by PC program participation | Electronic data |
| Haughton, 2010 | Retrospective | WIC participants: breastfed at least one child who was younger than 5 | CT | Identification of factors associated with breastfeeding duration | Survey; self-completed or administered |
| Hildebrand, 2014 | Two-part quasi-experimental | WIC participants: parents and caregivers of children (birth–3 years); WIC clinics | OK | Changes in physical and social environment in four WIC clinics determined perception of WIC experience and breastfeeding initiation | Computerized survey; secondary breastfeeding data |
| Hurley, 2008 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants | MD | Examined how breastfeeding behaviors, perceptions, and experiences vary by race/ethnicity in the United States | Telephone survey |
| Jacobson, 2015 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants | KS | Sought insight into maternal characteristics associated with breastfeeding among urban and rural women | Pregnancy Nutrition Surveillance System data set |
| Joyce, 2008 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants: enrolled during pregnancy and continued enrollment postpartum | FL, GA, IN, MI, MO, NJ, NC, OH, VA | Tested exposure to WIC and associated outcomes with smoking, weight gain during pregnancy, birth outcomes, and likelihood of breastfeeding | Pregnancy Nutrition Surveillance System data set |
| Langellier, 2012 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants: biological mother of child in WIC | CA | Measured effect of in-hospital breastfeeding, receiving of formula discharge pack, and maternal return to work on breastfeed duration | Survey data from 2008; telephone interview |
| Langellier, 2014 | Cross-sectional; pre/post design | WIC participants: English or Spanish speaking | CA | Effect of 2009 WIC changes on breastfeeding outcomes | Survey questionnaire; interview |
| Lovera, 2010 | Cohort; intervention | WIC participants: mothers and spouses; initiated breastfeeding | TX | Pilot Peer Dad Program based on theory of planned behavior aimed toward fathers to promote support of breastfeeding through peer counseling | Structured interviews |
| Ma, 2012 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants: first-time mothers | LA | Application of positive deviance concept to explore characteristics of positive deviants for breastfeeding | LaPRAMS from 2000–2004 |
| McKechnie, 2009 | Retrospective | WIC participants | WI | Examined exclusive versus partial breastfeeding relating to breastfeeding duration and determined association of demographic characteristics | Maternal records from existing database |
| Meehan, 2008 | Cross-sectional; pre/post design | WIC participants: English or Spanish speaking | CA | Electric pump loan program determined facility of breastfeeding for mothers returning to work | Survey questionnaire; interview |
| Metallinos-Katsaras, 2015 | Longitudinal | WIC participants: prenatal and postpartum; singleton live births | MA | Association between length of exposure to WIC and breastfeeding initiation and duration | WIC breastfeeding data |
| Mickens, 2009 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants: any stage of pregnancy | CA | Identification of effect factors for low-income women’s infant-feeding decisions | Structured survey questionnaire |
| Mistry, 2007 | Quantitative | WIC participants | CA | Breastfeeding PC used the theory of planned behavior to assess intentions, attitudes, and norms toward breastfeeding | Structured survey questionnaire |
| Murimi, 2010 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants: rural residency | LA | Determined factors that have largest effect on breastfeeding and effect of formula provision by WIC on breastfeeding | Validated questionnaire, adapted |
| Olson, 2010 | Quasi-experimental | WIC participants | MI | Examined effectiveness of a PC program | Administrative and survey-based sources |
| Reeder, 2014 | Stratified, randomized | WIC participants: indicated intention or indecisiveness to breastfeed | OR | Effectiveness of a telephone PC program for increased breastfeeding initiation, duration, and exclusivity | Data retrieved from OR WIC Information System Tracker (TWIST) |
| Sayegh, 2007 | Pre/post intervention | WIC participants: rural; expectant or new mothers | TX | Pilot media breastfeeding outreach campaign (posters, billboard, radio, TV, newspaper, magazine ads, community presentations, gift basket distribution) | Interviews |
| Stremler, 2004 | Intervention | WIC participants: fathers of enrolled infants and children | TX | Father peer support program development from documented success from PC and research identifying father’s attitude as important influence on breastfeeding | Exit interviews |
| Tender, 2009 | Retrospective | WIC participants | DC | Identified reasons that breastfeeding mothers begin inhospital formula supplementation and risk factors associated with supplementation | Orally administered survey |
| Tenfelde, 2011 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants: initiated breastfeeding and responded to a question on breastfeeding exclusivity | IL | Examined predictors of breastfeeding exclusivity in hospital in an urban area | Clinical and administrative data |
| Vaaler, 2010 | Cross-sectional | WIC participants: mothers of young children | TX | Influences of demographic characteristics, breastfeeding in public, attitudes to infant feeding, and use of formula on breastfeeding | Infant Feeding Practices Survey |
| Whaley, 2012 | Pre/post data analysis | WIC participants | CA | Effect of 2009 WIC food package changes with increased staff training and education on breastfeeding package issuance rates | WIC data on breastfeeding and infant-feeding packages issued |
| Yun, 2010 | Cross-sectional | WIC participant data: all 118 WIC agencies | MO | Effectiveness of PC programs on breastfeeding initiation and identification of factors to facilitate breastfeeding initiation | 2006 Pregnancy Nutrition Surveillance System, birth certificate data |
Note. PC = peer counselor; WIC = Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children. N = 32.