Table 2.
Empirical studies on future time perspective (FTP) at work published over the past decade.
| Authors and year | Samplea and design | Measure and dimensions | Antecedentsb | Consequencesb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| General FTP at work | ||||
| Unidimensional operationalization | ||||
| (1) Bal et al., 2013 | Sample 1: 117 employees, mean age = 37 years, cross-sectional; Sample 2: 217 employees, mean age = 54.8 years, cross-sectional | FTP (10 items), general FTP | ∗Age (-) | ∗Continuance commitment (-)∗Normative commitment (-) |
| (2) Bal et al., 2010 | 176 post-retirement workers, 65–79 years, cross-sectional | FTP (10 items), general FTP | ∗Employer developmental fulfillment (+)∗In-role obligations (-)∗Citizenship obligations (-) High performance obligations (n.s.) | |
| (3) Baltes et al., 2014 | 104 older contracts workers, mean age = 69.20 years, three-wave study | FTP (10 items), general FTP | Promotion focus (n.s.) | ∗Promotion focus (+) |
| (4) De Lange et al., 2011 | 90 employees, 22–61 years, two-wave study | FTP (seven items), general FTP | / | Work motivation (n.s.) |
| (5) Korff et al., 2016 | 913 employees, mean age = 41.9 years, cross-sectional | FTP (10 items), general FTP | ∗HRM systems(∗Motivation enhancing practices [+]; Knowledge, skills and abilities enhancing practices [n.s.];Opportunity enhancing practices [n.s.]) | ∗Job satisfaction (+)∗Affective organizational commitment (+) |
| (6) Oostrom et al., 2016 | 244 employees, 45–65 years, cross sectional | FTP (10 items), general FTP | ∗Tasks and work responsibilities i-deals (+) | ∗Employability (+) |
| (7) Park and Jung, 2015 | 555 employees, 18–57 years, cross sectional | FTP (10 items), general FTP | / | ∗Occupational self-efficacy (+)∗Career commitment (+)∗Organizational commitment (+) |
| (8) Sia et al., 2015 | 234 female employees, 40–45 years, cross-sectional | FTP (10 items), general FTP | / | ∗Physical, emotional, and cognitive work engagement (+) |
| (9) Treadway et al., 2010 | 291 managers, mean age = 30.6 years, cross-sectional | FTP (10 items), general FTP (and OFTP) | / | ∗Career networking (+ for general FTP; n.s. for OFTP)∗Community networking (+ for general FTP; n.s. for OFTP) |
| (10) Treadway et al., 2011 | 291 employees, mean age = 30.6 years, cross-sectional, sample overlap with [9] | FTP (10 items), general FTP | / | ∗Continuance commitment (-)Affective commitment (n.s.) |
| (11) Yeung et al., 2013 | 67 Chinese clerical employees, 19–58 years, 14-day experience sampling study | FTP (10 items), general FTP | / | ∗Momentary task performance (+) |
| Bidimensional operationalization | ||||
| (12) Akkermans et al., 2016 | 186 taxi employees, mean age = 55.01 years, cross-sectional | Focus on opportunities (FO) (three items), remaining time (RT) (three items) | ∗Intrinsic work motivation (+: RO and RT)∗Extrinsic work motivation (+ for RT; n.s. for RO)∗Motivation to continue working (+ for RT; n.s. for RO) | |
| (13) Kooij et al., 2013 | Study 1: 385 health care employees, mean age = 45.7 years, cross-sectional; Study 2: 1169 university employees, mean age = 42.5 years, sample overlap with [15] | FTP (five items), open-ended FTP, limited FTP | ∗Age (- for open-ended FTP; + for limited FTP) | ∗Growth motivations (+ for open-ended FTP; - for limited FTP [only in Sample 2])∗Esteem motivations (+ for open-ended FTP; n.s. for limited FTP) Security motivations (n.s.) Generativity motivations (n.s.) |
| (14) Kooij et al., 2016 | 287 university employees, mean age = 45.38 years, two-wave study, sample overlap with [13,15,17] | FTP (10 items), open-ended FTP, limited FTP | / | ∗Job crafting (increasing job resources and challenging job demands; decreasing hindering JD) (+ for open-ended FTP; n.s. for limited FTP) |
| (15) Kooij and Van De Voorde, 2011 | 660 university employees, mean age = 43.9 ears, two-wave study | FTP (10 items), open-ended FTP, limited FTP | ∗Subjective general health (+ for open-ended FTP; - for limited FTP) | ∗Development motives (+ for open-ended FTP; - for limited FTP),∗Generativity motives (+ for limited FTP; n.s. for open-ended FTP) |
| (16) Zacher and de Lange, 2011 | 85 employees, mean age = 43.41 years, two-wave study | FTP (six items), focus on opportunities, focus on limitations | ∗Age (- for focus on opportunities; n.s. for focus on limitations) ∗Promotion orientation (+ for focus on opportunities; n.s. for focus on limitations)∗Prevention orientation (+ for focus on limitations; n.s. for focus on opportunities) | Promotion orientation (n.s.) Prevention orientation (n.s.) |
| Only remaining time | ||||
| (17) Kooij et al., 2014 | 301 university employees, 19–67 years, four-wave study, sample overlap with [13,15] | FTP (four items), remaining time | ∗Age (-) | ∗Promotion focus (+)Growth motives (n.s.) |
| Occupational FTP | ||||
| Unidimensional operationalization | ||||
| (1) Bal et al., 2015 | 168 employees, 21–70 years, cross-sectional | OFTP (three items), overall OFTP (until retirement) | ∗Age meta-stereotypes (-)Negative age stereotypes (n.s.) | ∗Intention to retire (-) |
| (2) Ho and Yeung, 2016 | 199 Chinese clerical workers, 20–64 years, experimental study (scenarios) | OFTP (10 items), overall OFTP | / | ∗Psychological distress (-)Job stress (n.s.) |
| Bi(tri)dimensional operationalization | ||||
| (3) Froehlich et al., 2016 | 282 employees, mean age = 41.85 years, cross-sectional | OFTP (seven items), focus on opportunities (FO), remaining time (RT) | ∗Age (- for FO and RT) | ∗Employability (∗Anticipation and optimization [+ for FO; n.s. for RT];∗Personal flexibility [+ for FO; n.s. for RT];Occupational expertise [n.s.]) |
| (4) Kochoian et al., 2016 | 560 workers, 21–64 years, cross-sectional | OFTP (eight items), focus on opportunities (FO), constrained remaining time (RT) | ∗Age (+ for constrained RT; - for FO) | ∗Learning self-efficacy (+ for FO; - for constrained RT)∗Learning value (+ for FO; n.s. for constrained RT) |
| (5) Weikamp and Göritz, 2015 | 2180 workers, 18–65 years, six-wave study | OFTP (six items), focus on opportunities (FO), remaining time (RT) | ∗Age (- for RT and RO) | / |
| (6) Weikamp and Göritz, 2016 | 312 workers, 21–64 years, three-wave study | OFTP (five items), focus on opportunities (FO), remaining time (RT) | / | ∗Job satisfaction (+ for FO; n.s. for RT)∗OCBO > OCBI (+ for FO; n.s. for RT) |
| (7) Zacher, 2013 | 182 older job seekers, 43–77 years, cross-sectional | OFTP (10 items), focus on opportunities (FO), perceived remaining time (RT), focus on limitations | / | ∗Job search intensity |
| (8) Zacher and Frese, 2009 | 176 workers, 19–60 years, cross-sectional | OFTP (six items), focus on opportunities (FO), remaining time (RT) | ∗Age (- for FO; - for RT)∗Job complexity and job control (+ for FO; n.s. for RT) | / |
| Only focus on opportunities | ||||
| (9) Gielnik et al., 2012 | 84 business owners, 24–74 years, cross-sectional | OFTP (five items), focus on opportunities | ∗Age (-)∗Mental health (+) | ∗Venture growth (+) |
| (10) Gielnik et al., 2016 | 201 small business managers, 23–83 years, five-wave study | OFTP (five items), focus on opportunities | ∗Age (-) | ∗Business growth (+) |
| (11) Schmitt et al., 2013a | 124 business owners, mean age = 52.7 years, two-wave study | OFTP (four items), focus on opportunities | ∗General optimism (+)Work engagement (n.s.) | ∗Work engagement (+)General optimism (n.s.) |
| (12) Schmitt et al., 2013b | Study 1: 174 employees of a manufacture, 16–64 years, cross-sectional; Study 2: 64 administrative employees, 20–62 years, daily diary study (5 days) | OFTP (five items), focus on opportunities | / | ∗Work engagement (+) |
| (13) Zacher and Frese, 2011 | 133 employees, 16–65 years, cross-sectional | OFTP (four items), focus on opportunities | ∗Age (-)∗Job complexity (+) ∗Use of SOC strategies (+) | / |
| (14) Zacher et al., 2010 | 168 employees, 19–64 years, cross-sectional | OFTP (three items), focus on opportunities | ∗Age (-)∗Job complexity (+) | ∗Work performance (+) |
| (15) Zacher and Yang, 2016 | 649 employees, 18–74 years, cross-sectional | OFTP (three items), focus on opportunities | ∗Organizational climate for successful aging (+) | ∗Job satisfaction (+)∗Organizational commitment (+)∗Motivation to continue working after official retirement age (+) |
| Only remaining time | ||||
| (16) Kooij and Zacher, 2016 | Study 1: 175 employees, 19–69 years, cross-sectional; Study 2: 149 employees, mean age = 35.4 years, two-wave study | OFTP (three items), remaining time | ∗Age (-)∗Work centrality (+) | ∗Learning goal orientation (+)∗Attitude toward learning and development (+) |
FTP, Future time perspective (when items used refer to the future “in general”; Carstensen and Lang, 1996; Lang and Carstensen, 2002); OFTP, occupational future time perspective (when items used were adapted to the work context, Zacher and Frese, 2009); FO, focus on opportunities; RT, remaining time. aAge range of the sample is provided whenever available; otherwise, mean age is reported. bAntecedents/outcomes with an asterisk were significantly related to FTP at work; antecedents/outcomes in italics were not significantly related to FTP at work.