Table 1.

Nutritional training methods: while some methods have more supporting evidence than others, these are the potential nutritional training tools that athletes and coaches can use to periodize the athlete’s nutrition

Train low	Training twice a day	Limited or no carbohydrate intake between the two sessions. The first training will lower muscle glycogen so that the second training is performed in a low-glycogen state. This may increase the expression of relevant genes
	Training fasted	Training is performed after an overnight fast. Muscle glycogen may be normal or even high but liver glycogen is low
	Training with low exogenous carbohydrate availability	No or very little carbohydrate is ingested during prolonged exercise. This may exaggerate the stress response
	Low-carbohydrate availability during recovery	No or very little carbohydrate is ingested post-exercise. This may prolong the stress response
	Sleep low	Train late in the day and go to bed with carbohydrate intake restricted. Essentially the same idea as low-carbohydrate availability after training but the period post-exercise is extended. Muscle and liver glycogen will be low for several hours during sleep
	Low-carbohydrate high-fat/ketogenic diets	Long-term low-carbohydrate stores
Train high	Training with high muscle and liver glycogen	Carbohydrate intake is high before training when glycogen is important and there is a focus on glycogen restoration post-exercise
	Training with a high-carbohydrate diet	Carbohydrate intake is high on a daily basis independent of training, but may be especially high around training (during and after)
Training the gut	Training of stomach comfort	Increasing volume of intake with or without exercise
	Training gastric emptying	Repeated use of meals to increase/improve gastric emptying of fluids or nutrients (carbohydrate) and reduce stomach discomfort
	Training absorption	Increasing daily carbohydrate intake and/or intake during exercise to improve absorptive capacity of the gut and reduce intestinal discomfort
	Training race nutrition	Training all aspects of a nutrition strategy as on race day
Training dehydrated	Training in a dehydrated state	Training with limited/no fluid intake to allow dehydration
Improving training adaptations with supplements	Supplements	Supplements that may allow more training to be performed (see Table 2)
		Supplements that may initiate or increase protein synthesis and/or increase myofibrillar protein synthesis (see Table 2)
		Supplements with the potential to increase mitochondrial biogenesis (see Table 2)