Table 1. Participants' mean (and standard deviation) demographics and performance scores for language, literacy, and cognition tasks.
| Measures | Monolingual English N = 14 (8 F) | Bilingual English N = 13 (6 F) | Bilingual Spanish N = 13 (6 F) | T-values Between- Groups | T-values Within (Bilinguals) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 9.67 (1.67) | 10.31 (1.52) | -- | 1.04 | -- |
| IQ | 114.43 (16.34) | 115.15 (13.15) | -- | 0.13 | -- |
| Demographics a | |||||
| Income | 7.54 (1.76) | 7.92 (1.78) | -- | 0.53 | -- |
| Mother's education | 6.14 (1.41) | 6.27 (2.15) | -- | 0.18 | -- |
| Father's education | 5.86 (1.23) | 5.91 (2.21) | -- | 0.08 | -- |
| Language & Literacy | |||||
| Vocabulary | 121.43 (15.86) | 114.23 (12.39) | 107.85 (19.87) | 1.31 | 1.10 |
| Phonology (%) b | 81.79 (15.89) | 86.15 (7.95) | 87.31 (17.27) | 0.89 | 0.33 |
| Syntax (%)b | 92.41 (5.01) | 94.95 (8.42) | 76.39 (20.25) | 0.96 | 3.25** |
| Reading | 113.11 (13.01) | 116.19 (9.83) | 97.04 (14.26) | 0.69 | 6.82*** |
| Attention & Cognition | |||||
| Naming Speedc | 99.18 (12.72) | 107.46 (11.51) | -- | 1.78 | -- |
| Naming Speed c (seconds) | 31.97 (11.76) | 24.26 (5.91) | 29.50 (14.66) | 2.13* | 1.41 |
| HTKSd | 50.93 (5.15) | 54.0 (5.03) | -- | 1.57 | -- |
| ANT Accuracy (%) | |||||
| Neutral | 98.21 (3.19) | 99.38 (1.50) | -- | 1.20 | -- |
| Congruent | 98.86 (1.87) | 98.38 (2.14) | -- | 0.61 | -- |
| Incongruent | 97.14 (2.91) | 99.38 (1.50) | -- | 2.49* | -- |
| ANT Reaction Time (ms) | |||||
| Neutral | 733.71 (96.66) | 739.04 (140.82) | -- | 0.12 | -- |
| Congruent | 748.53 (90.60) | 736.85 (117.86) | -- | 0.29 | -- |
| Incongruent | 800.75 (97.19) | 789.87 (146.81) | -- | 0.23 | -- |
| Attentional Control (subtractions between Incongruent and control conditions) | |||||
| - Congruent | 52.22 (44.94) | 53.03 (47.31) | -- | 0.05 | -- |
| - Neutral | 67.05 (40.02) | 50.83 (61.73) | -- | 0.82 | -- |
Note.
p < 0.05
p < 0.01
p < 0.001
Options for demographic responses on yearly household income were the following: (1) less than $5,000; (2) $5,000 - $11,999; (3) $12,000 - $15,999; (4) $16,000 - $24,999; (5) $25,000 - $34,999; (6) $35,000 - $49,999; (7) 50,000 - $74,999; (8) $75,000 - $99,999; (9) $100,000 and greater. Options for responses on education were the following: (1) primary school, (2) some secondary school, (3) High school diploma or equivalent (GED), (4) some college, (5) Associate's degree, (6) Bachelor's degree, (7) Master's degree, (8) Doctorate degree [Ph.D], Professional degree [MD, DD, DDS, etc].
Percentage scores are presented due to disproportionate total items in the tasks.
Assessed via the Rapid Automatic Naming (RAN) Numbers subtest, standard scores based on a mean of 100 (SD = 15) are presented first. Below the averaged (and standard deviation) total time taken to complete the naming speed task as measured by seconds are also presented for each group.
HTKS raw score is presented: 30 items, each item's score ranges between 0 as incorrect response, 1 as self-correction, and 2 as correct response.