Table 1.
Chronological list of landmarks in microscopy and DNA replication
| Year | Landmark | Author |
|---|---|---|
| 63 | Water filed glass bowls to read small letters | (Singer 1914) |
| 1267 | The first simple microscope | (Bacon 1267) |
| 1590 | Accidental discovery of the compound microscope with two (or more) lenses by Zacharias Janssen | (van der Aa 1851) |
| 1610 | “Microscope” with ×1000 magnification | (Galilei 1610) |
| 1665 | “Micrographia” | (Hooke 1665; Singer 1914) |
| 1847 | First “mass produced” microscopes in 1847 | |
| 1866 | Hereditary traits in 29,000 pea plants | (Mendel 1866) |
| 1866 | Hereditary traits contained in the nucleus | (Dahm 2008; Haeckel 1866) |
| 1871 | Purified nuclei for the first time and observed DNA | (Miescher 1871) |
| 1893 | Ein neues Beleuchtungsverfahren für mikrophotographische Zwecke | (Köhler 1893) |
| 1907 | On the absorption of antibodies | |
| 1908 | First fluorescence microscopes based on UV-microscopy | |
| 1919 | Identification of the nucleic acid structure | |
| 1927 | “Replicate in a semiconservative fashion using each strand as a template” | (Soyfer 2001) |
| 1932 | Discovery of the electron microscope | (Knoll and Ruska 1932a; Knoll and Ruska 1932b) |
| 1947 | DNA X-ray diffraction images | (Astbury 1947) |
| 1953 | X-ray diffraction “Photo 51” | (Watson and Crick 1953) |
| 1953 | Discovery of the double-helix DNA structure | (Watson and Crick 1953) |
| 1953 | Discovery of phase contrast microscopy | (Zernike 1955) |
| 1958 | Confirmation of the semiconservative DNA replication model | (Meselson and Stahl 1958) |
| 1957 | Discovery of the confocal microscope | (Minsky 1961) |
| 1962 | Extraction, purification, and properties of GFP | (Shimomura et al. 1962) |
| 1963 | DNA unwinding for replication and “replication fork” | (Cairns 1963) |
| 1966 | Autoradiography of chromosomal DNA fibers from Chinese hamster cells. | (Huberman and Riggs 1966) |
| 1966 | On the mechanism of DNA replication in mammalian chromosomes | (Huberman and Riggs 1968) |
| 1967 | First practical application of the “Nipkow disk” in confocal microscopy | (Egger and Petráň 1967; Petráň et al. 1968) |
| 1968 | Mechanism of DNA chain growth. I. Possible discontinuity and unusual secondary structure of newly synthesized chains. | (Okazaki et al. 1968) |
| 1968 | Mechanism of DNA chain growth, II. Accumulation of newly synthesized short chains in E. coli infected with ligase-defective T4 phages. | (Sugimoto et al. 1968) |
| 1969 | Duration of the cell cycle | (Van Dilla et al. 1969) |
| 1969 | Mechanism of DNA chain growth, III. Equal annealing of T4 nascent short DNA chains with the separated complementary strands of the phage DNA | (Sugimoto et al. 1969) |
| 1969 | Mechanism of DNA chain growth. IV. Direction of synthesis of T4 short DNA chains as revealed by exonucleolytic degradation. | (Okazaki and Okazaki 1969) |
| 1972 | Bidirectional Replication of Simian Virus 40 DNA | (Danna and Nathans 1972) |
| 1974–1979 | Fork speed, replication speed, and replicon sizes | (Kriegstein and Hogness 1974; Taylor 1977; Taylor and Hozier 1976; Wilson and Wilson 1975; Yurov 1977; Yurov 1978; Yurov 1979; Yurov and Liapunova 1977) |
| 1975 | Continuous cultures of fused cells secreting antibody of predefined specificity. | |
| 1986 | Structural organizations of replicon domains during DNA synthetic phase in the mammalian nucleus | (Nakamura et al. 1986) |
| 1989 | Three distinctive replication patterns | (Nakayasu and Berezney 1989) |
| 1992 | Dynamic organization of DNA replication in mammalian cell nuclei spatially and temporally defined replication of chromosome | (O’Keefe et al. 1992) |
| 1992 | Progression of DNA synthesis | (Rizzoli et al. 1992) |
| 1993 | Structured Illumination Microscopy (SIM) | (Bailey et al. 1993) |
| 1994 | Green fluorescent protein as a marker for gene expression | (Chalfie et al. 1994) |
| 1994 | 4pi microscope | (Hell 2003; Hell et al. 1994) |
| 1994 | Alignment and sensitive detection of DNA by a moving interface | (Bensimon et al. 1994) |
| 1997 | The replication origin decision point is a mitogen | (Wu and Gilbert 1997) |
| 1997 | Dynamic molecular combing: stretching the whole human genome for high-resolution studies. | (Michalet et al. 1997) |
| 1998 | Replicon clusters are stable units of chromosome structure evidence that nuclear organization contributes to the efficient activation and propagation of S phase in human cells | (Jackson and Pombo 1998) |
| 1999 | The spatial position and replication timing of chromosomal domains are both established in early G1 phase | (Dimitrova and Gilbert 1999) |
| 1999 | Single molecule analysis of DNA replication. | (Herrick and Bensimon 1999) |
| 2000 | Heterogeneity of eukaryotic replicons, replicon clusters, and replication foci | (Berezney et al. 2000) |
| 2000 | Dynamics of DNA replication factories in living cells | (Leonhardt et al. 2000) |
| 2000 | DNA replication at high resolution | (Keck and Berger 2000) |
| 2000 | Mechanisms of DNA replication | (Davey and O’Donnell 2000) |
| 2001 | Eukaryotic origins | |
| 2001 | Repression of origin assembly in metaphase depends on inhibition of RLF-BCdt1 by geminin | (Tada et al. 2001) |
| 2001 | Visualization of DNA replication on individual Epstein-Barr Virus episomes | (Norio and Schildkraut 2001) |
| 2002 | DNA polymerase clamp shows little turnover at established replication sites but sequential de novo assembly at adjacent origin clusters | (Sporbert et al. 2002) |
| 2002 | DNA replication and chromatin | (Gerbi and Bielinsky 2002) |
| 2002 | Initiation of DNA replication in multicellular eukaryotes | (Gerbi et al. 2002) |
| 2003 | Sequence-independent DNA binding and replication initiation by the human origin recognition complex | (Vashee et al. 2003) |
| 2003 | The ‘ORC cycle’: a novel pathway for regulating eukaryotic DNA replication | (DePamphilis 2003) |
| 2004 | Stable chromosomal units determine the spatial and temporal organization of DNA replication | (Sadoni et al. 2004) |
| 2004 | DNA replication and DNA repair mechanisms most of the replication machinery is also used in DNA repair. | (Sancar and Lindsey-Boltz 2004) |
| 2005 | Preventing rereplication | (Blow and Dutta 2005) |
| 2005 | PCNA acts as a stationary loading platform for transiently interacting Okazaki fragment maturation proteins | (Sporbert et al. 2005) |
| 2005 | Eukaryotic origins of DNA replication: could you please be more specific? | (Cvetic and Walter 2005) |
| 2006 | Origin selection and silent origins | (Patel et al. 2006) |
| 2006 | Regulating the licensing of DNA replication origins in metazoa | (DePamphilis et al. 2006) |
| 2006 | DNA replication: keep moving and don’t mind the gap. | (Langston and O’Donnell 2006) |
| 2007 | Impact of chromatin structure | |
| 2007 | Replisome mechanics: insights into a twin DNA polymerase machine. | (Pomerantz and O’Donnell 2007) |
| 2007 | The many faces of the origin recognition complex | (Sasaki and Gilbert 2007) |
| 2007 | High-throughput mapping of origins of replication in human cells. | (Lucas et al. 2007) |
| 2007 | Characterization of a triple DNA polymerase replisome. | (McInerney et al. 2007) |
| 2007 | Dynamic DNA helicase-DNA polymerase interactions assure processive replication fork movement. | (Hamdan et al. 2007) |
| 2007 | Polymerase switching in DNA replication. | (Lovett 2007) |
| 2008 | 3D–SIM | (Gustafsson et al. 2008) |
| 2008 | Division of labor at the eukaryotic replication fork. | (Nick McElhinny et al. 2008) |
| 2008 | DNA polymerases at the replication fork in eukaryotes | (Stillman 2008) |
| 2008 | Discovery of stimulated emission depletion (STED) | (Schmidt et al. 2008) |
| 2009 | In DNA replication, the early bird catches the worm. | (Boye and Grallert 2009) |
| 2009 | G-quadruplex structures: in vivo evidence and function. | (Lipps and Rhodes 2009) |
| 2009 | Eukaryotic DNA replication control: lock and load, then fire. | (Remus and Diffley 2009) |
| 2010 | Organization of DNA replication | (Chagin et al. 2010) |
| 2010 | Eukaryotic chromosome DNA replication: where, when, and how? | (Masai et al. 2010) |
| 2010 | SCF (Cyclin F) controls centrosome homeostasis and mitotic fidelity through CP110 degradation. | (D’Angiolella et al. 2010) |
| 2010 | Uncoupling of sister replisomes during eukaryotic DNA replication. | (Yardimci et al. 2010) |
| 2010 | DNA replication: making two forks from one prereplication complex. | (Botchan and Berger 2010) |
| 2011 | Eukaryotic origin-dependent DNA replication in vitro reveals sequential action of DDK and S-CDK kinases. | (Heller et al. 2011) |
| 2011 | Failure of origin activation in response to fork stalling leads to chromosomal instability at fragile sites. | (Ozeri-Galai et al. 2011) |
| 2011 | Selective bypass of a lagging strand roadblock by the eukaryotic replicative DNA helicase. | (Fu et al. 2011) |
| 2011 | Genome-wide depletion of replication initiation events in highly transcribed regions. | (Martin et al. 2011) |
| 2011 | Origin association of Sld3, Sld7, and Cdc45 proteins is a key step for determination of origin-firing timing. | (Tanaka et al. 2011) |
| 2012 | Genome-scale identification of active DNA replication origins. | (Cayrou et al. 2012) |
| 2012 | Forkhead transcription factors establish origin timing and long-range clustering in S. cerevisiae | (Knott et al. 2012) |
| 2012 | A fragment based click chemistry approach towards hybrid G-quadruplex ligands: design, synthesis and biophysical evaluation | (Ritson and Moses 2012) |
| 2012 | Histone hypoacetylation is required to maintain late replication timing of constitutive heterochromatin. | (Casas-Delucchi et al. 2012) |
| 2012 | OriDB, the DNA replication origin database updated and extended. | (Siow et al. 2012) |
| 2012 | Replication timing: the early bird catches the worm. | (Douglas and Diffley 2012) |
| 2012 | CK2 inhibitor CX-4945 suppresses DNA repair response triggered by DNA-targeted anticancer drugs and augments efficacy: mechanistic rationale for drug combination therapy. | (Siddiqui-Jain et al. 2012) |
| 2012 | Experimental approaches to identify cellular G-quadruplex structures and functions. | (Di Antonio et al. 2012) |
| 2012 | Activation of the replicative DNA helicase: breaking up is hard to do. | (Boos et al. 2012) |
| 2012 | Analysis of DNA replication profiles in budding yeast and mammalian cells using DNA combing. | (Bianco et al. 2012) |
| 2012 | DeOri: a database of eukaryotic DNA replication origins. | (Gao et al. 2012) |
| 2012 | Replication origins run (ultra) deep. | (Gilbert 2012) |
| 2012 | Unraveling cell type-specific and reprogrammable human replication origin signatures associated with G-quadruplex consensus motifs. | (Besnard et al. 2012) |
| 2012 | Targeted manipulation of heterochromatin rescues MeCP2 Rett mutants and re-establishes higher order chromatin organization. | (Casas-Delucchi et al. 2012) |
| 2013 | Genome-wide mapping of human DNA-replication origins: levels of transcription at ORC1 sites regulate origin selection and replication timing. | (Dellino et al. 2013) |
| 2013 | Functional implications of genome topology. | (Cavalli and Misteli 2013) |
| 2013 | Nuclear positioning. | (Gundersen and Worman 2013) |
| 2013 | Chromatin dynamics at the replication fork: there’s more to life than histones. | (Whitehouse and Smith 2013) |
| 2013 | Quantitative, genome-wide analysis of eukaryotic replication initiation and termination. | (McGuffee et al. 2013) |
| 2013 | The Elg1 replication factor C-like complex functions in PCNA unloading during DNA replication. | (Kubota et al. 2013) |
| 2013 | Replication timing regulation of eukaryotic replicons: Rif1 as a global regulator of replication timing. | (Yamazaki et al. 2013) |
| 2013 | Bubble-seq analysis of the human genome reveals distinct chromatin-mediated mechanisms for regulating early- and late-firing origins. | (Mesner et al. 2013) |
| 2013 | A personal reflection on the replicon theory: from R1 plasmid to replication timing regulation in human cells. | (Masai 2013) |
| 2013 | From simple bacterial and archaeal replicons to replication N/U-domains. | (Hyrien et al. 2013) |
| 2013 | Genomes and G-quadruplexes: for better or for worse. | (Tarsounas and Tijsterman 2013) |
| 2013 | New insights into replication clamp unloading. | (Ulrich 2013) |
| 2013 | Replication dynamics: biases and robustness of DNA fiber analysis. | (Técher et al. 2013) |
| 2013 | Specification of DNA replication origins and genomic base composition in fission yeasts. | (Mojardín et al. 2013) |
| 2013 | The replication domain model: regulating replicon firing in the context of large-scale chromosome architecture. | (Pope and Gilbert 2013) |
| 2013 | Time to be versatile: regulation of the replication timing program in budding yeast. | (Yoshida et al. 2013) |
| 2013 | Why are there so many diverse replication machineries? | (Forterre 2013) |
| 2014 | Epigenetic control of DNA replication dynamics in mammals | (Casas-Delucchi and Cardoso 2014) |
| 2014 | Lethal effects of short-wavelength visible light on insects. | (Hori et al. 2014) |
| 2014 | Existence and consequences of G-quadruplex structures in DNA. | (Murat and Balasubramanian 2014) |
| 2014 | Histone variants: the tricksters of the chromatin world. | (Volle and Dalal 2014) |
| 2014 | Supercoiling in DNA and chromatin. | (Gilbert and Allan 2014) |
| 2014 | G4 motifs affect origin positioning and efficiency in two vertebrate replicators. | (Valton et al. 2014) |
| 2014 | The spatiotemporal program of DNA replication is associated with specific combinations of chromatin marks in human cells. | (Picard et al. 2014) |
| 2014 | Licensing of DNA replication, cancer, pluripotency and differentiation: an interlinked world? | (Champeris Tsaniras et al. 2014) |
| 2014 | Temporal and spatial regulation of eukaryotic DNA replication: from regulated initiation to genome-scale timing program. | (Renard-Guillet et al. 2014) |
| 2014 | The histone variant H2A. Bbd is enriched at sites of DNA synthesis. | (Sansoni et al. 2014) |
| 2014 | FANCJ promotes DNA synthesis through G-quadruplex structures. | (Castillo Bosch et al. 2014) |
| 2015 | The hunt for origins of DNA replication in multicellular eukaryotes. | (Urban et al. 2015) |
| 2015 | Measuring the effectiveness of scientific gatekeeping. | (Siler et al. 2015) |
| 2015 | Peaks cloaked in the mist: the landscape of mammalian replication origins. | (Hyrien 2015) |
| 2015 | Post-translational modifications of tubulin: pathways to functional diversity of microtubules. | (Song and Brady 2015) |
| 2015 | Regulated eukaryotic DNA replication origin firing with purified proteins. | (Yeeles et al. 2015) |
| 2015 | Single-molecule studies of origin licensing reveal mechanisms ensuring bidirectional helicase loading. | (Ticau et al. 2015) |
| 2015 | Single-molecule visualization of MCM2–7 DNA loading: seeing is believing. | (Chistol and Walter 2015) |
| 2015 | High-resolution profiling of Drosophila replication start sites reveals a DNA shape and chromatin signature of metazoan origins. | (Comoglio et al. 2015) |
| 2015 | The dynamics of eukaryotic replication initiation: origin specificity, licensing, and firing at the single-molecule level. | (Duzdevich et al. 2015) |
| 2016 | 4D Visualization of replication foci in mammalian cells corresponding to individual replicons | (Chagin et al. 2016) |
| 2016 | 3D replicon distributions arise from stochastic initiation and domino-like DNA replication progression | (Löb et al. 2016) |