Outcome	Effectiveness
Decreased research misconduct	No evidence,1 but access to data is limited by what information becomes public. Even if more data were available, a significant impact is unlikely since the classroom appears to be less important than the research environment.3
Decreased RCR disputes or misunderstandings	No evidence, but it is plausible that increased awareness of issues will diminish the risk of disputes and misunderstandings.
Increased knowledge and/or skills	Evidence is nominal. Although statistically significant improvements have been reported (e.g., for ethical decision-making), the magnitude of the impact of teaching RCR on knowledge and skills is typically modest, absent, or negative.1,4
Positive attitudes, continued learning, and culture of RCR	Individual impact: Evidence is promising, but must allow for different individuals experiencing different impacts (e.g., improved ethical decision-making skill or increased awareness of authorship standards).5 Group impact: Some evidence suggests successful fostering of a culture of integrity based on the extent to which trainees continue conversations outside the classroom (Kalichman and colleagues, unpublished observations).
Evidence is unclear; some evidence for effectiveness.