Table 2-1.
Means on cognitive outcomes by moderating characteristics and only children.
| Three districts | One district | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chinese | Mathematics | Chinese | Mathematics | |||||||||
| Variable | N | %O | O | NO | O | NO | N | %O | O | NO | O | NO |
| Full sample | 3,964 | 40 | 0.22 | −0.15 | 0.26 | −0.17 | 1,787 | 13 | 0.01 | 0.004 | 0.12 | −0.01 |
| GENDER | ||||||||||||
| Boys | 2,079 | 45 | 0.03* | −0.46* | 0.21 | −0.22 | 946 | 15 | −0.09* | −0.19* | 0.09 | −0.10 |
| Girls | 1,884 | 36 | 0.51 | 0.14 | 0.33 | −0.13 | 841 | 11 | 0.18 | 0.21 | 0.16 | 0.08 |
| REGION | ||||||||||||
| Rural | 1,564 | 14 | −0.39 | −0.28 | −0.36 | −0.30 | 1,550 | 10 | −0.08 | −0.002 | −0.001 | −0.04 |
| Urban | 2,256 | 58 | 0.33* | 0.05* | 0.36 | 0.03 | 206 | 33 | 0.19* | −0.01* | 0.41 | 0.25 |
| FATHER'S EDUCATION | ||||||||||||
| Lower-educated | 1,535 | 18 | −0.26 | −0.34 | −0.38 | −0.36 | 1,325 | 10 | −0.07 | −0.04 | −0.07 | −0.09 |
| Middle-educated | 1,017 | 37 | 0.01 | −0.03 | 0.04 | −0.07 | 352 | 16 | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.34 | 0.22 |
| Higher-educated | 1,344 | 68 | 0.47 | 0.24 | 0.56 | 0.25 | 87 | 38 | 0.12 | 0.19 | 0.43 | 0.45 |
| MOTHER'S EDUCATION | ||||||||||||
| Lower-educated | 1,791 | 17 | −0.32 | −0.30 | −0.33 | −0.33 | 1,467 | 9 | 0.04 | −0.02 | 0.01 | −0.06 |
| Middle-educated | 944 | 43 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 218 | 22 | −0.16 | 0.18 | 0.10 | 0.33 |
| Higher-educated | 1,180 | 73 | 0.51 | 0.30 | 0.56 | 0.27 | 68 | 52 | 0.30 | 0.35 | 0.62 | 0.42 |
| PARENTAL EXPECTATIONS | ||||||||||||
| Lower-expected | 418 | 21 | −0.86 | −0.95 | −1.02 | −0.94 | 298 | 11 | −0.48 | −0.44 | −0.54 | −0.67 |
| Middle-expected | 1,256 | 37 | 0.03 | −0.19 | −0.03 | −0.22 | 573 | 11 | −0.13 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.01 |
| Higher-expected | 2,197 | 46 | 0.42 | 0.10 | 0.52 | 0.09 | 881 | 15 | 0.22 | 0.16 | 0.35 | 0.20 |
| SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS | ||||||||||||
| Lower-income | 1,202 | 27 | −0.22 | −0.28 | −0.27 | −0.36 | 1,375 | 11 | 0.003 | −0.01 | 0.05 | −0.05 |
| Middle-income | 1,636 | 46 | 0.28* | −0.14* | 0.34 | −0.09 | 326 | 19 | 0.01* | 0.09* | 0.29 | 0.15 |
| Higher-income | 1,003 | 40 | 0.46 | 0.08 | 0.50 | 0.06 | 45 | 13 | 0.51 | 0.14 | 0.68 | 0.32 |
| FAMILY STRUCTURE | ||||||||||||
| Broken | 738 | 44 | −0.01 | −0.20 | −0.13 | −0.24 | 436 | 16 | −0.28 | −0.13 | −0.14 | −0.18 |
| Intact | 3,226 | 40 | 0.29* | −0.14* | 0.36 | −0.16 | 1,352 | 12 | 0.14* | 0.05* | 0.23 | 0.04 |
O, only children; NO, non-only children. Tests of variances homogeneity were used to rule out groups with different variances. Statistically significant differences were noted with asterisks (p < 0.01). Independent-samples t-tests were used to examine mean-level differences in the standardized cognitive outcomes by only-child status. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05 and Cohen's d > 0.20) are noted in italics.