Table 3.
Odds ratio (OR) for GDM according to pregnancy intake of various sources of dietary protein in the GUSTO study (n =980)
| n | Median intake (% E) | Model 11 | Model 22 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | |||
| Red meat protein | ||||
| No intake | 427 | 0.0 | reference | reference |
| T1 | 184 | 1.0 | 0.96 (0.58, 1.58) | 1.09 (0.64, 1.85) |
| T2 | 185 | 2.3 | 0.92 (0.56, 1.51) | 1.00 (0.58, 1.74) |
| T3 | 184 | 5.2 | 1.11 (0.69, 1.80) | 1.40 (0.81, 2.42) |
| Per 2 energy % | 980 | 1.07 (0.93, 1.23) | 1.13 (0.96, 1.33) | |
| P-trend | 980 | 0.76 | 0.31 | |
| Poultry protein | ||||
| No intake | 340 | 0.0 | reference | reference |
| T1 | 213 | 1.1 | 0.84 (0.52, 1.35) | 0.91 (0.55, 1.51) |
| T2 | 214 | 3.3 | 1.24 (0.80, 1.93) | 1.48 (0.91, 2.41) |
| T3 | 213 | 6.7 | 0.80 (0.49, 1.30) | 1.16 (0.67, 2.02) |
| Per 2 energy % | 980 | 1.00 (0.90, 1.11) | 1.09 (0.96, 1.23) | |
| P-trend | 980 | 0.77 | 0.28 | |
| Seafood protein | ||||
| No intake | 317 | 0.0 | reference | reference |
| T1 | 221 | 1.0 | 1.53 (0.95, 2.46) | 1.66 (1.00, 2.77) |
| T2 | 221 | 2.8 | 1.14 (0.69, 1.89) | 1.23 (0.75, 2.09) |
| T3 | 221 | 6.6 | 1.62 (1.01, 2.59) | 2.17 (1.26, 3.72) |
| Per 2 energy % | 980 | 1.07 (0.97, 1.18) | 1.15 (1.03, 1.29) | |
| P-trend | 980 | 0.12 | 0.023 | |
| Egg protein | ||||
| No intake | 460 | 0.0 | reference | reference |
| T1 | 173 | 0.5 | 0.77 (0.47, 1.27) | 0.83 (0.49, 1.41) |
| T2 | 174 | 1.2 | 1.02 (0.64, 1.63) | 1.15 (0.70, 1.89) |
| T3 | 173 | 2.3 | 1.15 (0.73, 1.80) | 1.28 (0.78, 2.08) |
| Per 2 energy % | 980 | 1.05 (0.76, 1.45) | 1.10 (0.77, 1.55) | |
| P-trend | 980 | 0.56 | 0.29 | |
| Dairy protein | ||||
| Q1 | 245 | 0.0 | reference | reference |
| Q2 | 245 | 0.9 | 1.18 (0.72, 1.94) | 1.21 (0.72, 2.05) |
| Q3 | 245 | 1.8 | 1.25 (0.76, 2.04) | 1.41 (0.83, 2.37) |
| Q4 | 245 | 3.3 | 1.52 (0.94, 2.46) | 1.87 (1.11, 3.15) |
| Per 2 energy % | 980 | 1.22 (0.99, 1.50) | 1.36 (1.07, 1.71) | |
| P-trend | 980 | 0.09 | 0.017 | |
| Rice, noodles, dessert protein | ||||
| Q1 | 245 | 2.6 | reference | reference |
| Q2 | 245 | 3.7 | 0.60 (0.37, 0.96) | 0.60 (0.36, 1.01) |
| Q3 | 245 | 4.5 | 0.59 (0.36, 0.95) | 0.73 (0.43, 1.25) |
| Q4 | 245 | 5.8 | 1.04 (0.66, 1.65) | 1.45 (0.83, 2.53) |
| Per 2 energy % | 980 | 0.99 (0.54, 1.81) | 1.18 (0.87, 1.60) | |
| P-trend | 980 | 0.96 | 0.27 | |
| Beans protein | ||||
| No intake | 375 | 0.0 | reference | reference |
| T1 | 201 | 0.2 | 0.85 (0.52, 1.39) | 0.92 (0.55, 1.54) |
| T2 | 202 | 1.1 | 1.18 (0.75, 1.86) | 1.17 (0.71, 1.90) |
| T3 | 202 | 2.7 | 1.33 (0.85, 2.09) | 1.44 (0.88, 2.35) |
| Per 2 energy % | 980 | 1.18 (0.94, 1.49) | 1.27 (0.98, 1.64) | |
| P-trend | 980 | 0.15 | 0.13 | |
Model 1: adjusted for maternal age (continuous) and ethnicity (Chinese, Malay, Indian).
Model 2: model 1 adjustments plus parity (0, ≥1), maternal education attainment (secondary or below, technical college, pre-university, university), family history of diabetes (yes, no), previous GDM (yes, no), smoking status (never, former, current), alcohol consumption during pregnancy (yes, no), physical activity during pregnancy (continuous), pre-pregnancy BMI (<18.5, 18.5-22.9, 23- <27.5, ≥27.5kg/m2), total fat intake (quartiles), total energy intake (quartiles) and mutual adjustment for other major dietary protein sources. CI, confidence interval; E, energy; OR, odds ratio; Q, quartile; T, tertile (tertiles among consumers).