Table 6.
Brain activity due to cognitive challenges to dynamic balance control.
| Name, year | Balance challenge | TM or OG | Modality | Mobile | Spatial information | Brain activity |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al-Yahya et al., 2016 | ST vs. DT (counting) walking in adults with chronic stroke | TM PWS | fNIRS | No | PFC | Increased activation in DT for both groups |
| Beurskens et al., 2014 | Walking with visual or verbal memory task in young and elderly adults | TM PWS | fNIRS | No | PFC | Decreased activation in DT (visual) in elderly group |
| PFC | Little change in PFC activation in DT in young group | |||||
| Beurskens et al., 2016 | ST vs. DT: motor or cognitive interference | TM PWS | EEG | Yes | Cz | Decreased alpha activity during cognitive DT |
| FCz, Cz | Decreased beta activity decreased during cognitive DT | |||||
| Clark et al., 2014b | Verbal task while walking in older adults | OG | fNIRS | No | PFC | Increased activation during walking phase |
| De Sanctis et al., 2014 | Evaluate walking load on response inhibition with Go/No-Go Task | TM Fixed | EEG | No | O1/Oz/O2 | Increase in P200 amplitude between sitting and walking |
| FCz, Cz, CPz | Reduction in N200 amplitude during walking vs. sitting | |||||
| CPz | P300 amplitude reduced for walking | |||||
| FCz, Cz | P300 increased amplitude, reduced latency at higher walking speed | |||||
| Doi et al., 2013 | DT walking using verbal letter fluency task in older adults | OG | fNIRS | No | PFC | Increased activation during DT walking |
| Holtzer et al., 2011 | WWT DT in young and old adults | OG | fNIRS | No | PFC | Increased activation in WWT compared with ST walking |
| Greater activation in young vs. old group in DT condition | ||||||
| Holtzer et al., 2015 | WWT DT in older adults | OG | fNIRS | No | PFC | Increase in activation during WWT condition |
| Holtzer et al., 2016 | WWT DT in adults with and without neurological gait abnormalities | OG | fNIRS | No | PFC | Increased activation during WWT |
| Huppert et al., 2013 | Lateral stepping based on congruent or incongruent information | Stepping | fNIRS | No | BA 46, BA 6, BA 4 | Increased activation in incongruent trials |
| Kline et al., 2014 | Brooks spatial WM task at multiple speeds | TM Fixed | EEG | No | Somatosensory association cortex | Alpha power increased prior to stimulus presentation |
| Alpha power decreased during memory encoding | ||||||
| Rt. superior parietal lobule and posterior cingulate cortex | Theta power decreased around memory encoding | |||||
| Lau et al., 2014 | Respond to target while sitting or walking on TM, with or without cognitive DT | TM Fixed | EEG | No | Sensorimotor Cortex | Effective connectivity weaker for walking than standing regardless of cognitive task |
| PFC, posterior parietal cortex, ACC | Connectivity stronger for walking than standing only in cognitive DT condition | |||||
| Lin and Lin, 2016 | Please refer to Table 5 | |||||
| Lu et al., 2015 | Walking with motor task (carry water on tray) or cognitive task (subtraction) | OG | fNIRS | Yes | Left PFC | Increase in activation during preparation of DT conditions, maintained activation during cognitive task. |
| SMA and PMC | Increased activation during both DT conditions | |||||
| PMC and SMA | Increased activation correlated with declines in gait performance | |||||
| Malcolm et al., 2015 | Go/No-go task while sitting or walking in young and old healthy adults | TM Fixed | EEG | No | Cz, FCz, and CPz | Decreased N200 amplitude for DT condition in young adults |
| Reduced N200 latency for DT condition compared in young adults | ||||||
| Reduced P300 latency compared to sitting condition | ||||||
| Mirelman et al., 2014 | Walking while counting forward, walking with serial 7's | OG | fNIRS | No | Fp1 and Fp2 | Increased activation with increased task difficulty. |
| Osofundiya et al., 2016 | DT walking (WWT), simple walking, and precision walking in older adults (obese and controls)—Holtzer 2011, Verghese 2002 | OG | fNIRS | No | PFC | Oxygenation levels were higher in complex ambulatory tasks |
| Higher oxygenation levels in obese group (performance metrics were the same) | ||||||
| Shine et al., 2013a | Stop-signal task in a VR environment to navigate a corridor using foot pedals. Cognitive load modulated by Stroop task. Older adults with PD, with or without FoG | Stepping | fMRI | No | Bi. lat. posterior parietal cortices, midline pre-SMA, bi. lat. anterior insula, medial temporal lobes, extra-striate visual cortex | Activation in both groups when walking with VR paradigm |
| Bi. lat. anterior insula, ventral striatum, pre-SMA, lt. subthalamic nucleus | Lower activation during cognitive load condition while stepping in FoG group | |||||
| Shine et al., 2013b | Stop-signal task in a VR environment to navigate a corridor using foot pedals. Cognitive load modulated by Stroop task. Older adults with PD, with or without FoG | Stepping | fMRI | No | Lft CCN and ventral attention network | Activation in both groups during task performance |
| Bilateral cognitive control network | Increased connectivity in both groups during task performance | |||||
| Motor network | Activation during high cognitive load condition, to lesser extent in FoG group | |||||
| Motor network and left CCN | Increased connectivity during high cognitive load | |||||
| Basal ganglia network and CCN in each hemisphere | Decoupling in FoG group, associated with freezing event | |||||
| Takeuchi et al., 2016 | Walking while playing on smart phone | OG | fNIRS | Yes | PFC | No difference in activation during smartphone use while walking between young and old groups |
| Differential activation in old and young groups correlated to walking acceleration, step time, and game mistakes | ||||||
TM, treadmill; OG, overground; PWS, preferred walking speed; ST, single task; DT, dual task; WWT, walking while talking; WM, working memory; VR, virtual reality; PD, Parkinson's Disease; FoG, freezing of gait; BA, Brodmann Area; lt., left; rt., right; bi. lat., bilateral; PFC, prefrontal cortex; ACC, anterior cingulate cortex; SMA, supplementary motor area; CCN, cognitive control network.