Table 5.
Associations between breastfeeding status and high metabolite concentrations, adjusting for birth mode and IAP, and other covariates.
| Breastfeeding status | Number of infants with high metabolite concentration, n/N (%) (n = 158) | P value for trend* | Odds of high metabolite concentration |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unadjusted OR (95% CI) (n = 153) | Model 1 aOR (95% CI) (n = 153) | Model 2 aOR (95% CI) (n = 153) | Model 3 aOR (95% CI) (n = 148) | |||
| Total SCFA | ||||||
| None | 28/44 (63.6) | <0.001 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Partial | 41/66 (62.1) | 0.92 (0.42–2.05) | 0.89 (0.40–2.01) | 0.79 (0.34–1.83) | 0.73 (0.30–1.75) | |
| Exclusive | 9/48 (18.8) | 0.14 (0.06–0.38) | 0.14 (0.05–0.36) | 0.13 (0.05–0.38) | 0.13 (0.04–0.39) | |
| Acetate | ||||||
| None | 25/44 (56.8) | 0.01 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Partial | 43/66 (65.2) | 1.38 (0.62–3.05) | 1.45 (0.64–3.30) | 1.27 (0.54–3.00) | 1.33 (0.54–3.28) | |
| Exclusive | 14/48 (29.2) | 0.32 (0.13–0.75) | 0.29 (0.12–0.71) | 0.30 (0.11–0.79) | 0.30 (0.11–0.86) | |
| Butyrate | ||||||
| None | 33/44 (75.0) | <0.001 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Partial | 37/66 (56.1) | 0.37 (0.15–0.87) | 0.37 (0.16–0.90) | 0.35 (0.14–0.87) | 0.42 (0.16–1.11) | |
| Exclusive | 13/48 (27.1) | 0.11 (0.04–0.28) | 0.11 (0.04–0.29) | 0.12 (0.04–0.35) | 0.13 (0.04–0.39) | |
| Propionate | ||||||
| None | 33/44 (75.0) | <0.001 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Partial | 40/66 (60.6) | 0.50 (0.22–1.17) | 0.45 (0.18–1.09) | 0.42 (0.17–1.05) | 0.48 (0.18–1.25) | |
| Exclusive | 8/48 (16.7) | 0.07 (0.03–0.20) | 0.68 (0.02–0.18) | 0.06 (0.02–0.19) | 0.07 (0.02–0.24) | |
| Valerate | ||||||
| None | 32/44 (72.7) | <0.001 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Partial | 33/66 (50.0) | 0.32 (0.14–0.75) | 0.31 (0.13–0.74) | 0.35 (0.14–0.86) | 0.42 (0.16–1.07) | |
| Exclusive | 12/48 (25.0) | 0.11 (0.04–0.28) | 0.10 (0.04–0.27) | 0.13 (0.04–0.36) | 0.15 (0.05–0.45) | |
| Isobutyrate | ||||||
| None | 34/44 (77.3) | <0.001 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Partial | 31/66 (47.0) | 0.25 (0.11–0.59) | 0.23 (0.09–0.55) | 0.18 (0.07–0.47) | 0.23 (0.09–0.63) | |
| Exclusive | 15/48 (31.3) | 0.13 (0.05–0.34) | 0.13 (0.05–0.35) | 0.12 (0.04–0.33) | 0.15 (0.05–0.45) | |
| Isovalerate | ||||||
| None | 34/44 (77.3) | <0.001 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Partial | 34/66 (51.5) | 0.30 (0.13–0.72) | 0.30 (0.12–0.71) | 0.25 (0.10–0.63) | 0.33 (0.13–0.86) | |
| Exclusive | 11/25 (22.9) | 0.08 (0.03–0.23) | 0.09 (0.03–0.23) | 0.08 (0.03–0.22) | 0.09 (0.03–0.29) | |
| Lactate | ||||||
| None | 10/44 (22.7) | <0.001 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Partial | 36/66 (54.5) | 4.56 (1.88–11.04) | 4.51 (1.82–11.18) | 5.75 (2.16–15.26) | 5.37 (1.90–15.15) | |
| Exclusive | 32/48 (66.7) | 7.81 (2.99–20.37) | 8.81 (3.27–23.72) | 13.94 (4.39–44.24) | 12.29 (3.64–41.46) | |
| Succinate | ||||||
| None | 15/44 (34.1) | 0.15 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Partial | 41/66 (62.1) | 3.45 (1.53–7.79) | 3.25 (1.42–7.41) | 3.03 (1.30–7.02) | 3.21 (1.31–7.88) | |
| Exclusive | 24/48 (50.0) | 2.07 (0.88–4.90) | 2.03 (0.85–4.84) | 1.85 (0.72–4.72) | 1.93 (0.71–5.22) | |
Breastfeeding status at fecal sample collection. High metabolite concentration denotes values above the median. Model 1: adjusted for birth mode and IAP; model 2: adjusted for birth mode and IAP, age of stool collection, sex, and city of birth; model 3: adjusted for birth mode and IAP, age of stool collection, sex, city of birth, maternal BMI, and education.
OR, odds ratio; SCFA, short-chain fatty acid; IAP, intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis.
*Pearson chi-square P value for linear trend (univariate).