Table 1.

Description of studies included in the systematic review.

Authors, year, reference #	Purpose	N	Age (years)	Walking cadence to reach moderate intensity	Variables associated with reaching moderate intensity	Strategies, tools, and interventions	Main outcomes
Tudor-Locke and Rowe (2012) [15]	Summarize the potential for using cadence to measure and promote intensity of activity	Review article	—	Most studies find that 100 s/m elicits 3 METs (mod intensity)	Focuses on what we can do with cadence	Cadence appears to be sensitive to change with intervention	100 s/m = 3 METS Pedestrian cadence in natural conditions = 115 s/m. Lower cadence in free living
Abel et al. (2011) [16]	Identify step rate thresholds for different intensities	19	28 ± 7	Treadmill test at six standardized speeds. O2 consumption versus step rate	—	—	Men: mod = 94 vig = 125 Women: mod = 99 vig = 135 100 s/m = practical public health recommendation for mod intensity
Beets et al. (2010) [17]	Examine impact of leg length on steps per day associated with MPA	20	26 ± 5	Overground walking, 5 speeds, portable gas analyser	Leg length (related to step frequency)	—	100 s/m = 3 METs Increase leg length = decrease (−1.15) s/m Range for MPA s/m = 85–111
Marshall et al. (2009) [18]	Creating a pedometer-based guideline for PA recommendations	97	32 ± 11	4 speeds, O2 measured and steps. Step rate cut-point for mod = 3 METS	—	—	Men 3 METs = 92–102 s/m Women 3 METs = 91–115 s/m
Rowe et al. (2011) [19]	What is the self-selected “brisk” walking pace in inactive adults	25	34 ± 13	Mod intensity treadmill walking trial, steady state 02 measured	Self-selected brisk walk = higher cadence than mod pace	Used metronome to assist in pacing mod intensity	Self-selected brisk = 124 ± 8 s/m. Mod pace (metronome) = 114 ± 8 s/m with EE > 3 METS
Tudor-Locke et al. (2005) [20]	Pedometer-determined step count guidelines for walking intensity	50	18–39	6 min exercise bouts at 3 treadmill speeds and steady state VO2 recorded	—	—	Pedometer cut-points for minimal mod intensity = 96 s/m (men) and 107 s/m (women)
Nagasaki et al. (1996) [21]	Walking patterns and finger rhythm	1134	≥65	—	Step ratio = step length/cadence Age Finger festination (rhythmic movement)	—	Older = shorter steps Increased finger festination = increased step rate (smaller walk ratio)
Serrano et al. (2016) [22]	Evaluate walking cadence needed to reach moderate intensity in older adults & develop an algorithm for prescription	121	69 ± 8	Moderate intensity = when participants reached 40% of peak oxygen consumption on an indoor flat surface	Body weight, stride length, and height	Created an algorithm to predict mod intensity walking cadence	Mean walking cadence to reach mod intensity was 115 ± 10 s/m
Peacock et al. (2014) [23]	Stride rate and walking intensity in healthy older adults	29		3 ground and 3 treadmill trails (slow, medium, and fast) VO2 measured (indirect calorimetry)	Stride rate, age, and height have a significant effect (p < 0.01) on walking intensity	Synchronization between stride rate and music tempo found that music can be a useful way to guide walking cadence	Mean s/m exceeded minimum thresholds MVPA; slow (111 ± 12 s/m), medium (118 ± 11 s/m), and fast (124 ± 11 s/m) instructions
Tudor-Locke et al. (2013) [24]	Compare clinical and free-living cadence in older adults	15	61–81	Gait speed (cm/sec) & cadence measured for 1 week	Steps/day, normal versus dual task walking, pedometer versus accel steps/day	This group was able to walk at cadences > 100 s/m, but, on average, <10 min/day was spent above this cadence	Shown that these adults were capable of walking at cadences ≥ 100 s/m, but this was uncommon in daily life
Tudor-Locke et al. (2012) [25]	Analysis of NHANES for peak 30 min and 1 min cadence	3522	20+	Peak 30-minute cadence (highest s/m in a day, not necessarily consecutive minutes) & peak 1-minute cadence (the highest single minute in a day)	Sex, age, and BMI	—	30 min peak = 71 s/m 1 min peak = 100 s/m Both show decline in cadence with age and obesity
Dall et al. (2013) [26]	Comparing rate of stepping and number of steps in a minute epoch	117	46 ± 16	—	Comparing step accumulation versus cadence	—	Most walking was not done continuously so cadence cannot be determined from step accumulation alone. These 2 measures are not interchangeable
Brown et al. (2014) [27]	Determine if ability to walk ≥100 s/m predicts mortality in older adults	5000	70.6	Cadence calculated using 2.4 m walk and separated into ≥100 s/m versus <100 s/m	Cadences effect on mortality	—	Ability to walk ≥100 s/m predicted a 21% reduction in all-cause mortality. Each 10-step increase predicted a 4% reduction
Ayabe et al. (2013) [28]	Relationship between 1000 steps in 10 min (1k) and 3000 in 30 min (3k)	33	53 ± 19	Accelerometer measured light, mod, and vigorous intensity	Bouts of exercise intensity >10 minutes	—	# of steps (at all intensities) was higher on 1k or 3k days 1k duration not correlated with MVPA in >10 min bouts, unclear if cadence can be used to define MVPA
Taylor et al. (2010) [29]	Objective and subjective assessment of normal walking pace versus moderate intensity	10	54 ± 8	Normal walking pace measured using GPS over a 1 km outdoor walk and a timed 150 m trial	Height was significantly correlated with walking pace	Use of GPS for measurement has potential, allowing measurement in a real life setting	All participants walked at a pace considered as moderate intensity (≥1.34 m/sec)
Spyropoulos et al. (1991) [30]	Identify and compare components of walking gait between obese and nonobese men	12	30–47	Walking gait measured with cinematography in min/sec	Body weight	—	Obese = slower walking speed, shorter stride length, smaller cadence, and larger step width
Ayabe et al. (2011) [31]	Comparing stepping rate between normal weight and overweight/obese individuals	40	58 ± 8	Pedometer for 7 days to determine the number of steps and time spent in PA at <100, 100–129, 130 s/m	BMI (<25 kg m−2 or 25 kg m−2)	—	Overweight = sig. less steps/day, lower average stepping rate, and sig. shorter time in PA at 100 s/m
Rowe et al. (2013) [32]	Determine the role of height and stride length in mod intensity walking cadence	75	33 ± 12	3 overground and 3 treadmill trails (slow, medium, and fast) VO2 measured (indirect calorimetry)	Measured and 5 stride length variables and height	Height needs to be taken into consideration for more precise prescription of walking cadence	Height can cause cadence at mod intensity to vary more than 20 s/m (90–113)
Pillay et al. (2014) [33]	Examining the relationship between intensity and fitness/health outcomes for pedometer	70	32 ± 8	Pedometer classified aerobic as ≥60 s/m and nonaerobic as <60. Also collected total steps per day	Estimated VO2 max, BP, BMI, BF%, WC, age, gender, and total steps/day	—	Total steps/day and time accumulating “aerobic” steps inversely associated with BF%, BMI, WC, and systolic BP
Nielson et al. (2011) [34]	Determine accuracy of steps counts and EE as estimated	100	>50	Step counts and energy expenditure were estimated with a pedometer while walking 80, 90, 100, 110, and 120 s/m	—	Used metronome to help guide the 5 different step frequencies on the treadmill	Pedometer underestimated EE at 80 s/m and overestimated it at 90, 100, 110, and 120 s/m
Wittwer et al. (2013) [35]	Music and metronome cues effects on gait in healthy older adults	19	>65	—	Music versus metronome	Music = increase in gait velocity Both music and metronome = small increase in cadence (1 s/m)	Music and metronome cues produce different effects on gait spatiotemporal measures but not gait variability in healthy older adults
Wittwer et al. (2013) [36]	Effect of Rhythmic Auditory Cueing (RAC) on gait in people with Alzheimer Disease	30	80 ± 6	—	Music versus metronome	Both music and metronome = decreased stride length	RAC produced damaging effects on gait in a single session in this group with AD
Nascimento et al. (2015) [37]	Walking training on patients after stroke: a systematic review	211	—	—	—	Walking training with cueing of cadence	Walking training with cueing of cadence improves walking speed and stride length after stroke more than walking training alone
Foster et al. (2008) [38]	The talk test as a marker of exercise training intensity						Relationship between VT and the TT during various interventions and this suggests that the TT is suitable for exercise prescription
Persinger et al. (2004) [39]	Consistency of the talk test for exercise prescription	16	24				Support the hypothesis that the TT approximates VT on both treadmill and cycle
Slaght et al. (2016) [40]	Walking cadence prescription to reach the global physical activity recommendations in older adults	55	70	Mod intensity = when participants reached 40% of peak oxygen consumption on an indoor flat surface	Feedback on reaching mod intensity versus no feedback	Individualized cadence to reach mod intensity and feedback on ability to reach intensity = effective	Previously inactive older adults can increase time at mod intensity in 10-minute bouts weekly by using individually prescribed walking cadence
Marshall et al. (2013) [41]	Using step cadence goals to increase moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity	180	18–55	Accelerometer-based PA was measured at baseline and after 12 weeks	—	12-week intervention, 3 groups (self-selected, 10,000 steps per day, and 3000 steps in 30 min)	Group assigned 3000 steps in 30 min had more MVPA in ≥10 min bouts
Barreira et al. (2016) [42]	Pattern changes in step count accumulation and peak cadence due to a physical activity intervention	121	35–64	Accelerometer to measure different cadence bands & peak 1 min, 30 min, and 60 min cadence	—	2 groups; (1) diet and behaviour change, (2) diet and PA—increase steps/day and steps at MVPA	From the period before to the period after intervention no difference between groups for steps/day. Diet and PA group did accumulate significantly more steps at higher cadences
Waterhouse et al. (2010) [43]	Effects of music tempo upon submaximal cycling performance	12		Music tempo for cycling cadence	—	Faster tempo resulted in increased distance covered and cadence	Faster music = voluntarily increased workload
Bouchard et al. (2013) [44]	Can older inactive adults learn how to reach the required intensity of physical activity guideline?	25	≥65	2 groups used ≥40% HRR for moderate intensity; pedometer group used 100 s/m	Tool used to measure moderate intensity and ability to identify moderate intensity	3 different intervention methods (manual HR, HR monitor, and pedometer)	No group improved time in MVPA and HR monitor and pedometer groups increased total activity time and the pedometer group, though not significant, showed a tendency to be able to better identify mod intensity
Tudor-Locke et al. (2014) [45]	A randomized controlled trial of pedometer-based interventions differing on intensity messages	120	45–74	—	Comparing total steps versus cadence to elicit moderate intensity	3 groups; (1) 10,000 steps/day, (2) 10,000 steps/day & 30 min at mod intensity, and (3) control	This study will improve understanding on benefits walking volume and/or intensity have

s/m: steps per minute, MET: metabolic equivalent, O2: oxygen, mod: moderate, vig: vigorous, MPA: moderate physical activity, PA: physical activity, EE: energy expenditure, VO2: oxygen uptake, accel: accelerometer, NHANES: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, BMI: body mass index, GPS: Global Positioning System, sig: significantly, BP: blood pressure, BF%: body fat percent, WC: waist circumference, RAC: rhythmic auditory cueing, AD: Alzheimer's Disease, TT: talk test, VT: ventilatory threshold, HRR: heart rate at rest, HR: heart rate, and MVPA: moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.