Table 2.
Recent studies on the anticancer mechanisms of various ruthenium (Ru) complexes
| Serial number | Complex | Mechanism(s) involved | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ru(II) polypyridyl complexes; Ru trithiolato complexes; Ru anthraquinone complexes; [Ru(gly)(bipy)(dppb)]PF6 complex; Ru ketoconazole and letrazole complexes; Ru sulfoxide complexes; indazole Ru complexes |
Cell-cycle arrest/cell apoptosis/DNA damage | 16,17,20,41–44 |
| 2 | Ru polypyridyl complexes; cyclopentadienyl Ru complexes; Ru hydrazine complexes |
Cell apoptosis through ROS-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction/cell-cycle arrest/DNA damage | 40,45,46 |
| 3 | Ru(II) complexes: [Ru(dtzp)(dppz)Cl]+ and [Ru(dtzp)(dppz)CH3CN]2+; Ru phthalocyanine complexes |
Photocytotoxic/cell proliferation/cell apoptosis | 47–49 |
| 4 | Ru arene complexes | Interaction with DNA via intercalation of the aromatic ligand between base pairs | 50 |
| 5 | Ru nitrosyl complexes | Nitric oxide release mediated by redox reaction | 51 |
| 6 | Ru carbene complexes | Transmembrane carrier/DNA damage | 52 |
| 7 | Thiazolo arene Ru complex; Ru bistridentate complexes; Ru carbonyl complexes; Ru pyrazole complexes; Ru half sandwich complexes; Ru terpyridine complexes; Ru bridged complexes; Ru pterin complexes; cyclometalated Ru complexes; Ru sandwich complexes; Ru–letrazole complexes; Bis(allyl)–Ru complexes; dihydro phenazine Ru complexes; Ru curcuminoid complexes |
Cell proliferation/cell apoptosis/DNA damage | 1,20,45,53–67 |
| 8 | Dinuclear Ru complexes | Cytoplasmic membrane damage | 68 |
| 9 | Ru chalcone complexes | DNA fragmentation/cell-cycle arrest | 69 |
| 10 | Ru carboline complexes | Cell proliferation/mitochondrial pathway dysfunction/inhibition of CDK1 and CYCLIN B1/ROS generation/cell-cycle arrest | 70,71 |
| 11 | Ru arene Schiff base complexes | Apoptosis via induction of p53-independent mechanism | 72 |
| 12 | Ru pyridine complexes | Induction of apoptosis via suppression of vascular endothelial growth factor, metalloproteinases 2 and 9 (MMP-2 and -9) | 73 |
| 13 | Ru polypyridine complexes | ROS-induced cell death/DNA damage | 74 |
| 14 | Ru quinaldamide complexes | Inhibition of thioredoxin reductase 1 (Trx-R)-induced cell death/cell apoptosis | 75 |
| 15 | Ru N-heterocyclic carbene complexes | Induction of cell death via activation of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 pathway/inhibition of Trx-R-induced cell death | 76 |
| 16 | Ru arene Schiff base and Ru–aniline complexes | Apoptosis via induction of p53-independent mechanism and suppression of vascular endothelial growth factor | 72,77,78 |
| 17 | Chiral Ru complexes | Inhibition of topoisomerase-II/DNA damage | 79 |
| 18 | Diene Ru complexes | Mitochondrial pathway dysfunction/cell apoptosis | 80 |
| 19 | Bidentate Schiff base Ru complexes | DNA cleavage/DNA damage | 81 |
| 20 | Flavanol-derived ligand Ru complexes; Ru(II)–DMSO–chalcone complexes |
Inhibition of topoisomerase II and CDK2/DNA damage/cell proliferation | 82–84 |
| 21 | Di- and tricarbonyl Ru complexes | Cell proliferation/cell apoptosis | 85 |
Abbreviations: DMSO, Dimethyl sulfoxide; ROS, reactive oxygen species.