Fig. 3.

EVs in liver diseases. EVs from hepatocytes can mediate early immune responses in drug-induced liver injury, promote viral hepatitis, promote liver regeneration in ischemia-reperfusion injury and hepatectomy, and promote alcoholic and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis through activation of macrophages. EVs from hepatic endothelial cells can inhibit viral progression, whereas EVs from stem cells can reduce liver injury. Liver cancer cell EVs can create a premetastatic niche, educate the tumor stroma, and promote metastasis. EVs can be exploited for therapeutic intervention. Selective EV contents that are specific to cell of origin such as miRNA are potential biomarkers for disease.