Table 1. Reported levels of OCPs in various foods in African countries.
| Country | Foodstuff | Pesticide concentration (ng/g dw, except where specified) | Reference | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| DDTs | Other | ||||
| Benin | Fish (6 species) | 3.88–11.3 | α-endosulfan (0.50–3.39), Σaldrin (0.12–0.95), lindane (γ-HCH, ND–0.532) | [91] | |
| Shellfish | 0.20–18.5 | α-endosulfan (ND-0.90), Σaldrin (ND-0.371), lindane (ND) | |||
| Fish (ng/g lw) | 74–1,185 | α-endosulfan (23–7,926), aldrin (<1–24), dieldrin (2–57), endrin (<13), lindane (<13) | [92] | ||
| Fish (ng/g lw) | 242–1,239 | Σendosulfan (9–215), dieldrin (0–10) | [93] | ||
| Vegetables(µg/kg dw) | 647–1,578 | Σdrins (15–57), lindane (7–444) | |||
| Fish (ng/g lw) | 129–1,642 | Σendosulfan (0–215), lindane (0–6.5), dieldrin (0–9) | [72] | ||
| Fish (µg/g) | 30 | Lindane (105), dieldrin (77), heptachlor (40) | [71] | ||
| Cameroon | Maize | - | Lindane (9.53), endosulfan (0.06) | [80] | |
| Millet | - | Lindane (0.08), α-endosulfan (0.05), β-endosulfan (0.02) | |||
| Cowpea | - | Lindane (0.24), α-endosulfan (0.08) | |||
| Ndole/keleng keleng (local leaves) | - | <LOQ | [38] | ||
| Tomatoes | - | Endosulfan 0.02 | |||
| Egypt | Raw buffalo milk (local vendors, dairy farms and shops) | - | Alachlor (<0.001), dieldrin (<15), HCB (<0.200), lindane (<0.192), mehoxychlor (<0.200) | [78] | |
| African catfish (Claria gariepinus) (µg/kg fw) | p,p’-DDE (0.70–0.90) | Alachlor (0.23–0.25), lindane (1.38–2.10), dieldrin (0.72–1.20), aldrin (ND), heptachlor (0.30–0.50), HCB (ND) | [90] | ||
| Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) (µg/kg fw) | p,p’-DDE (ND) | Alachlor (ND), lindane (0.41–0.57), dieldrin (ND), aldrin (0.17–0.28), heptachlor (0.18–0.19), HCB (3.04–3.10) | |||
| Nile tilapia (µg/kg) |
p,p’-DDE (0.012–0.084), p,p’-DDD (ND–0.087), p,p’-DDT (ND–0.010) |
α-HCH (ND–0.059), heptachlor (ND–0.003), aldrin (ND–0.060), heptachlor epoxide (0.021–0.113), endrin (ND–0.026) | [11] | ||
| Buffalo liver (ng/g lw) | ND–18.41 | ΣHCHs (34.97–89.21), Σdrins (14.92–30.27), HCB (ND–10.15), ΣCHLs (ND-19.08) | [53] | ||
| Buffalo kidney (ng/g lw) | ND–35.67 | ΣHCHs (41.97–247.73), Σdrins (11.19–68.13), HCB (ND–96.47), ΣCHLs (ND-45.09) | |||
| Buffalo tongue (ng/g lw) | ND–62.83 | ΣHCHs (59.24–351.57), Σdrins (22.92–84.00), HCB (ND–23.18), ΣCHLs (ND) | |||
| Mussels (µg/g dw) | 0.94–31 | ΣHCHs (<LOD-11), ΣCHLs (<LOD-35), dieldrin (<LOD–12), endosulfan (<LOD–9.3), methoxychlor (<LOD–4.0), mirex (<LOD–0.89), ΣHCBs (<LOD–0.50) | [47] | ||
| Cucumbers (µg/g) | - | ΣOCPs 0.0–1.628 | [56] | ||
| Potato tubers: conventionally farmed (µg/g) | - | ΣOCPs 0.685 | [57] | ||
| Potato tubers: organically farmed (µg/g) | - | ΣOCPs 0.308 | |||
| Cucumbers (µg/g) | - | Dicofol 0.021 | [51] | ||
| Vegetables (pepper highest) (µg/g) | - | Dicofol <3.40 | [29] | ||
| Fruits (strawberry highest) (µg/g) | - | Dicofol <3.30 | |||
| Potato tubers (skin and pulp) (µg/g) | 0.537 | HCB (0.014, <0.026), lindane (0.141, <0.221) | [79] | ||
| Pommes frites (µg/g) | 0.061 (<0.094) | HCB (0.006, <0.011), lindane (0.021, <0.121) | |||
| Potato chips (µg/g) | 0.022 (<0.033) | HCB (0.003, <0.006), lindane (0.006, <0.0084) | |||
| Ethiopia | Fish (ng/g ww) | Means 19–56 (range 1.65–409.6) |
ΣCHLs (0.85–2.15, range 0.75–3.56), Σendosulfan (ND–25.90, range ND–42.5) | [27] | |
| Fish (4 species) (ng/g ww) | 0.77–61.9 | ΣHCHs (0.16–5.10), ΣCHLs (0.17–4.00), ΣHPTs (0.19–2.27) | [94] | ||
| Various foods (pepper, maize, teff, coffee pulp/beans) (µg/g) |
p,p’-DDE (0.00–0.086), p,p’-DDD (0.049–0.128), o,p’-DDT (0.085–0.193), p,p’-DDT (0.099–0.461) |
α-endosulfan (0.0042–0.0332), β-endosulfan (0.002–0.063) | [62] | ||
| Milk: cow (µg/kg) | <1,230 | Aldrin (<11.6), α-endosulfan (<77.6), β-endosulfan (ND) | [28] | ||
| Milk: goat (µg/kg) | <874.4 | Aldrin (ND), α-endosulfan (<142.1), β-endosulfan (<87.0) | |||
| Cow milk (µg/kg) | 0.389 | - | [36] | ||
| Beef (µg/g) | Means o,p’-DDT
(ND–3.23), p,p’-DDT (0.37–4.32) |
Means endosulfan-I (ND-0.06), aldrin (ND–0.012), dieldrin (ND-0.04), endrin (ND-0.011), lindane (ND–0.05) | [49] | ||
| Khat (µg/kg) | p,p’-DDT (ND-1,223.8) | - | [24] | ||
| Ghana | Cereal-based complementary foods (locally produced) (µg/g) | - | Means β-HCH (<0.017), lindane (<0.022), δ-HCH (<0.008), heptachlor (<0.006), γ-chlordane (<0.013), α-endosulfan (<0.008), β-endosulfan (<0.021) | [3] | |
| Cowpea (µg/g) | - | Total OCPs (including HCHs, heptachlor, drins, γ-chlordane, endosulfans, DDTs, methoxychlor) 0.314 | [4] | ||
| Maize (µg/g) | - | Total OCPs (including HCHs, heptachlor, drins, γ-chlordane, endosulfans, DDTs, methoxychlor) 0.354 | |||
| Okra (µg/kg) | - | OCPs (including lindane, heptachlor, drins, DDTs, endosulfan, methoxychlor) 3.10–7.60 | [35] | ||
| Fish (ng/g) |
p,p’-DDT (ND–0.93), p,p’-DDE (ND-0.50) |
Lindane (0.02–0.54), δ-HCH (0.01–0.98), aldrin (0.29–4.26), dieldrin (0.01–0.06), α-endosulfan (0.01–7.52),endosulfan sulfate (0.01–2.76), endrin (ND–0.67),endrin aldehyde (ND–0.77), endrin ketone (ND–0.26) | [48] | ||
| Fish (redbelly tilapia and catfish) (ng/g lw) | Average 440.90 | Average HCB (2.10), ΣHCHs (0.72), ΣCHLs (7.19) | [1] | ||
| Fruits (locally produced pawpaw, locally produced tomato, imported apples) |
p,p’-DDE (0.05,
<LOD, 0.01), o,p’-DDD(ND, <LOD, <LOD), o,p’-DDT (0.03, ND, ND), p,p’-DDT (0.02, 0.01, 0.09) |
Lindane (0.04, 0.02, 0.02), δ-HCH (0.06, 0.02, 0.04), heptachlor (0.02, 0.02, 0.05), aldrin (<LOD, ND, <LOD), heptachlor epoxide (<LOD, 0.06, <LOD),γ-chlordane (ND, <LOD, <LOD),α-endosulfan (0.02, <LOD, <LOD),endrin (0.01, <LOD, <LOD), β-endosulfan (0.02, ND, ND), endrin aldehyde (0.02, 0.01, 0.11),endrin ketone (0.02, 0.02, 0.01),methoxychlor (0.03, <LOD, <LOD) | [16] | ||
| Milk |
p,p’-DDE (0.01–4.62), p,p’-DDT (0.44–28.62) |
Range lindane (<LOD), aldrin (<LOD–0.05),endosulfan (0.02–0.12), dieldrin (0.04–4.62) | [25] | ||
| Yoghurt |
p,p’-DDE (0.01–2.05), p,p’-DDT (0.71–19.20) |
Range lindane (<LOD–0.05), aldrin (<LOD–0.15),endosulfan (<LOD–0.34), dieldrin (<LOD–0.34) | |||
| Cheese |
p,p’-DDE (0.16–485.76), p,p’-DDT (1.33–119.0) |
Range lindane (<LOD–4.41), aldrin (0.01–7.88),endosulfan (0.14–9.06), dieldrin (0.88–30.49) | |||
| Lettuce (µg/g) | 0.4 (0.02–0.9) | Lindane (average 0.3, range 0.03–0.9), endosulfan (0.4, 0.04–1.3) | [6] | ||
| Tomatoes (ng/g fw) | - | Heptachlor epoxide 1.65 | [66] | ||
| Morocco | Tomatoes (ng/g) | - | Dicofol (0.001–0.400), endosulfan (0.003–1.123) | [76] | |
| Clams and eels (ng/g lw) | <2,000 | - | [61] | ||
| Nigeria | White maize (µg/kg) | - | OCPs (means 7.9–52.0) | [68] | |
| Sene-Gambia | Bivalves and gastropods | 0.8–16.6 | ∑14 OCPs 1.9–17.8 | [19] | |
| Fish and shrimps (ng/g fat) | 11.1–199.2 | ∑HCHs (ND–13.3), ∑endosulfans (ND–49.7) | [55] | ||
| South Africa | Chicken eggs (ng/g ww) | Median 11,000 (range 5,200–48,000) |
- | [20] | |
| Fish (fat) (mg/kg fat) | 0.322–81.491 | - | [15] | ||
| Bovine milk (µg/kg mf) | 0.15 | - | [77] | ||
| Leafy vegetables (µg/kg) | 43.0 | - | [87] | ||
| Chicken meat (µg/kg) | 700 | - | |||
| Tanzania | Tilapia fish (Oreochromis sp) (ng/g lw) | 7.2–319 | HCB (0.6–4.0), ∑HCHs (0.6–4.0), ∑CHLs (<LOD–2.1), ∑CHBs (<LOD–0.9), ∑endosulfan (<LOD–405) | [74] | |
| Fish fillet (Nile tilapia and Nile perch) (mg/kg fw) | 0.03 | Endosulfan 0.2 | [41] | ||
| Spinach (µg/kg) | 2.89 | Lindane 0.08 | [65] | ||
| Rice (µg/kg) | 0.76 | Lindane 0.08 | |||
| Beef meat (µg/kg) | 0.76 | Lindane 0.14 | |||
| Stiff porridge (µg/kg) | 0.03 | Lindane 0.06 | |||
| Beans (µg/kg) | 0.13 | Lindane 0.04 | |||
| Fish fillet (Nile tilapia and Nile perch) (µg/kg) | - | Lindane 0.05 | |||
| Various aquatic biota (fish and crab species) (µg/kg fw) | 6.6–54 | - | [64] | ||
| Togo | Cowpea grains (µg/kg) | - | OCPs (including dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor epoxide, endosulfan) 13.16–98.79 | [59] | |
| Maize grains (µg/kg) | - | OCPs (including dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor epoxide, endosulfan) 0.53–65.70 | |||
| Tunisia | Dover sole (Solea solea)(ng/g lw) | 54.2–512 | HCB (1.7–18.0), ∑HCHs (ND–58.0), ∑OCPs (65–752) | [17] | |
| Mullet (Mugil cephalus)(ng/g lw) | 14.3–47.3 | HCB (1.27–15.1), ∑HCHs (0.57–20.5), ∑OCPs (19.6–157) | [7] | ||
| Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) (ng/g lw) | 25.4–227 | HCB (1.62–28.5), ∑HCHs (2.69–33.6), ∑OCPs (47.9–265) | |||
| Uganda | Nile perch and Nile tilapia (pg/g lw) | - | ∑HCHs ND-73,000 | [82] | |
| Fresh cow’s milk (mg/kg mf) | Mean 0.052 (range 0.018–0.152) |
Lindane (0.026, 0.001–0.086), aldrin (0.009, 0.002–0.018), dieldrin (0.007, 0.001–0.018), α-endosulfan (0.002, 0.001–0.004), β-endosulfan (<LOD) | [43] | ||
| Pasteurized cow’s milk(mg/kg mf) | Mean 0.041 (range 0.012–0.088) |
Lindane (0.022, <LOD–0.066), aldrin (0.006, 0.005–0.008), dieldrin (0.005, 0.001–0.021), α-endosulfan (<LOD), β-endosulfan (<LOD) | |||
| Fish (µg/kg fw) | ND-68 | - | [81] | ||
| Nile perch (belly flap oil) (µg/kg oil) | Mean 43.74 | - | [69] | ||
| Nile tilapia and African catfish (mg/kg ww) |
p,p’-DDE
(<0.01), p,p’-DDT (0.002) |
Endosulfan sulphate <0.002 | [13] | ||
| Nile tilapia (µg/kg) | Mean p,p’-DDE (0.80),
p,p’-DDT (0.59) |
Mean lindane (0.74), aldrin (0.28), α-endosulfan (1.70), dieldrin (0.30) | [46] | ||
| Nile perch (µg/kg) | Mean p,p’-DDE (0.86),
p,p’-DDT (0.81) |
Mean lindane (0.87), aldrin (0.48), α-endosulfan (1.45), dieldrin (0.18) | |||
ND=below limit of detection, ww or fw=wet weight or fresh weight, dw=dry weight, lw=lipid weight, mf=milk fat, LOQ=limit of quantification, LOD=limit of detection. CHLs=chlordanes, DDTs=DDT+DDE+DDD, HCB=hexachlorobenzene, HCH=hexachlorocyclohexanes, HPTs=heptachlor.