Table 2.
Energy balance, body composition, and cardiovascular risk factors during 12 weeks of intervention
| Paleolithic diet (n=15) | Paleolithic diet + Exercise (n=14) | |
|---|---|---|
| Energy balance | ||
| Energy intake (kcal/day) | ||
| Baseline | 2022 (1583–2268) | 1595 (1428–2257) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –291 (–587, –66)## | –530 (–863, –157)### |
| Physical activity energy expenditure (kcal/day) | ||
| Baseline | 1022 (904–1319) | 997 (806–1568) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –28 (–208, 30) | –18 (–368, 340) |
| Physical activity energy expenditure (kcal/kg/day) | ||
| Baseline | 11.6 (10.6–13.0) | 10.1 (9.2–16.6) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | 0.1 (–1.5, 2.1) | 0.6 (–2.9, 4.8) |
| Resting energy expenditure (kcal/day) | ||
| Baseline | 1620 (1463–1719) | 1709 (1319–1883) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –120 (–157, –71)### | –89 (–164, –44)## |
| Resting energy expenditure (kcal/kg/day) | ||
| Baseline | 17.0 (16.4–17.6) | 16.7 (15.7–18.6) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | 0.0 (–0.4, 0.8) | 0.5 (–0.3, 1.4) |
| Total energy expenditure (kcal/day) | ||
| Baseline | 2995 (2754–3356) | 2960 (2433–3855) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –227 (–307, –91)# | –312 (–562, 122) |
| Weight (kg) | ||
| Baseline | 90.0 (83.3–100.8) | 97.3 (83.9–110.3) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –7.1 (–9.7, –6.3)### | –7.1 (–8.7, –6.2)### |
| Body composition | ||
| Body fat (%) | ||
| Baseline | 37.8 (33.1–40.8) | 37.7 (34.7–43.1) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –3.5 (–4.4, –2.6)### | –4.1 (–5.8, –3.4)### |
| Lean mass (kg) | ||
| Baseline | 56.5 (49.0–63.8) | 61.0 (44.1–66.8) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –1.4 (–3.3, –1.2)### | –1.2 (–1.4, –0.2) |
| Waist circumference (cm) | ||
| Baseline | 111 (105–116) | 108 (104–115) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –9 (–12, –7)### | –8 (–10, –7)### |
| Abdominal height (cm) | ||
| Baseline | 27.2 (25.0–29.0) | 26.5 (23.0–29.8) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –3.6 (–4.7, –2.5)### | –3.0 (–4.3, –1.1)### |
| Glucose metabolism | ||
| HbA1c (%) | ||
| Baseline | 7.1 (6.5–7.3) | 7.3 (6.8–7.6) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | −0.9 (−1.2, −0.6)### | −1.1 (−1.7, −0.7)## |
| HbA1c (mmol/mol) | ||
| Baseline | 54 (48–57) | 57 (51–60) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | −10 (−13, −6)### | −12 (−19, −8)## |
| Fasting glucose (mmol/L) | ||
| Baseline | 8.0 (7.2–8.4) | 8.9 (7.9–10.5)* |
| Change 0–12 weeks | −0.9 (−1.7, −0.2)# | −2.0 (−3.2, −1.1)## |
| Fasting insulin (mIU/L) | ||
| Baseline | 23 (15–30) | 16 (11–20) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | −8 (−16, −3)## | −4 (−8, −2)### |
| Revised QUICKI | ||
| Baseline | 0.223 (0.192–0.227) | 0.207 (0.196–0.224) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | 0.027 (0.004, 0.054)## | 0.041 (0.031, 0.054)### |
| Cardiovascular fitness | ||
| VO2max (mL/kg/min) | ||
| Baseline | 23.4 (21.5–27.0) | 22.5 (21.0–25.2) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | 1.9 (0.6, 2.9)### | 3.3 (2.7, 6.2)###* |
| Resting heart rate (bpm) | ||
| Baseline | 70 (65–78) | 72 (66–77) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | −3 (−8, 1) | −11 (−12, −7)#* |
| Blood pressure | ||
| Systolic (mmHg) | ||
| Baseline | 135 (127–148) | 132 (122–143) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | −17 (−24, 0)## | −11 (−14, −7)### |
| Diastolic (mmHg) | ||
| Baseline | 86 (82–94) | 82 (74–91) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | −9 (−15, −6)### | −10 (−13, −7)### |
| Blood lipids | ||
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | ||
| Baseline | 4.2 (3.4–4.7) | 4.3 (4.1–4.9) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | −0.3 (−0.6, 0.1) | −0.6 (−0.6, −0.4)## |
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) | ||
| Baseline | 2.1 (1.4–2.9) | 1.7 (1.1–2.4) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | −0.6 (−1.5, −0.2)## | −0.5 (−1.0, −0.2)### |
| HDL (mmol/L) | ||
| Baseline | 0.85 (0.81–0.99) | 1.09 (0.98–1.21)** |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –0.01 (–0.08, 0.05) | 0.01 (–0.03, 0.07) |
| LDL (mmol/L) | ||
| Baseline | 2.1 (1.8–2.7) | 2.4 (2.0–3.0) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –0.1 (–0.4, 0.2) | –0.1 (–0.5, 0.1) |
| NEFA (μmol/L) | ||
| Baseline | 599 (560–756) | 826 (670–922) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | 26 (–12, 173) | –56 (–128, 117) |
| Adipokines | ||
| Leptin (ng/mL) | ||
| Baseline | 13.8 (6.4–26.5) | 13.3 (7.2–16.7) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –8.5 (–12.2, –2.6)### | –5.6 (–9.4, –3.5)### |
| Adiponectin (ng/mL) | ||
| Baseline | 4685 (2942–5939) | 4864 (4004–6268) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | 379 (213, 717)## | 5 (–256, 282)* |
| High-sensitivity CRP (mg/L) | ||
| Baseline | 1.2 (0.7–1.9) | 1.5 (0.7–2.5) |
| Change 0–12 weeks | –0.4 (–1.1, 0.0) | –0.4 (–0.9, 0.0)## |
Data are reported as the median (interquartile range); *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 between the Paleolithic diet group and the Paleolithic diet + Exercise group; #p<0.05, ##p<0.01, ###p<0.001 for the change over time from baseline to 12 weeks within the group. Abbreviation: CRP, C-reactive protein.