Table 1.

Representative publications exploring associations between technology usage and cognitive domains.

Reference	Finding summary
Attention
Alzahabi and Becker, 2013	Frequent media multitaskers are better at task switching; No correlation with dual-task performance
Cain and Mitroff, 2011	Effect of media multitasking on distractor filtering is due to differences in attentional scope rather than working memory capacity
Leiva et al., 2012	Within-phone interruptions cause up to a 4x delay in completion of a primary task
Lui and Wong, 2012	Frequent media multitaskers exhibit better multisensory integration
Moisala et al., 2016	In the presence of distractor stimuli during a sustained attention task, frequent media multitaskers perform worse and exhibit more right prefrontal activity
Ophir et al., 2009	Frequent media multitaskers perform worse on a task-switching paradigm, due to reduced ability to filter out interference
Ralph et al., 2013	Frequent media multitaskers report higher levels of everyday attention failures; No relationship between media multitasking habits and memory failures, attention switching, or distractibility
Ralph et al., 2015	No relationship between habitual media multitasking and sustained-attention processes
Stothart et al., 2015	In an attention-demanding task, mobile phone notifications cause a disruption in performance similar in magnitude to active phone usage
Thornton et al., 2014	The “mere presence” of a cell phone may produce diminished attention and worsened task-performance, especially for tasks with high cognitive demands
Yap and Lim, 2013	Frequent media multitaskers exhibit split visual focal attention, whereas infrequent media multitaskers exhibit unitary visual focal attention
Memory and knowledge
Boari et al., 2012	Forcing users to perform mental rotations, rather than automating them, enhances spatial knowledge acquisition
Burnett and Lee, 2005	Navigation system use impairs cognitive map building
Cain et al., 2016	More frequent media multitasking correlates with poorer working memory performance and lower standardized test scores
Frein et al., 2013	Frequent Facebook users exhibit poorer performance on a free recall task
Henkel, 2013	Taking a digital photograph reduces recall accuracy for details of specific images; This effect is mitigated by zooming in on the object
Parush et al., 2007	The use of navigation systems produces spatial knowledge impairments, but these can be mitigated by requiring users to request their position
Small et al., 2009	Older adults with significant internet experience show increased fMRI activity during internet search relative to those who are ‘net naïve’
Sparrow et al., 2011	When people assume that they have future access to information, they exhibit lower rates of recall for that information, but remember where that information can be accessed
Uncapher et al., 2015	Frequent media multitaskers exhibit poorer working-memory performance and increased attentional impulsivity
Xavier et al., 2014	Internet/Email use predicts better performance on a delayed recall task in the elderly
Delay of gratification and reward
Hadar et al., 2015	Administering smartphones to a smartphone-naïve sample results in greater delay discounting and decreased information-processing ability
Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013	Frequent media multitaskers report greater impulsivity and sensation seeking along with poorer working memory performance
Wang and Tchernev, 2012	Cognitive needs are not satisfied by media multitasking; Emotional gratifications are obtained despite not being sought
Wilmer and Chein, 2016	Greater investment in mobile devices correlates with weaker tendency to delay gratification. This relationship is mediated by impulse control
Zhang and Zhang, 2012	Different patterns of media multitasking result in different sorts of gratification
Everyday cognition and executive functioning
Abramson et al., 2009	More mobile phone usage predicts faster but less accurate Stroop performance
Alloway and Alloway, 2012	Frequent social media users commit more false positives in a Go/No-Go paradigm
Barr et al., 2015	More smartphone usage correlates with more intuitive, less analytic thinking
Baumgartner et al., 2014	Frequent media multitaskers report problems with everyday executive functioning; No relationship between media multitasking and performance on cognitive assessments
Beland and Murphy, 2014	Enforcing mobile phone bans in school is associated with better academic performance
Fox et al., 2009	Instant messaging while reading results in slower reading times, but no difference in comprehension; Higher rates of instant messaging are correlated with lower academic performance
Jacobsen and Forste, 2011	Negative correlation between electronic media usage and academic performance; Positive correlation between media usage and face-to-face interaction
Junco, 2012a	Text messaging and Facebook use during class are negatively correlated with GPA; Email, internet searching, and talking are not correlated with GPA
Junco, 2012b	Facebook use is negatively correlated with GPA; Use for socializing (e.g., status updates), rather than collecting and sharing info (viewing/posting pictures), drives the correlation
Junco and Cotten, 2012	Texting, Facebook, and conducting internet searches unrelated to academic activity concurrent with homework completion all negatively correlate with GPA
Karpinski et al., 2012	Social media use is negatively correlated with academic performance; The correlation is moderated by multitasking habits in a US sample, but not in a European sample
Kirschner and Karpinski, 2010	Facebook use is negatively correlated with GPA and hours per week spent studying
Lepp et al., 2014	Positive correlation between smartphone usage and anxiety; Negative correlation between smartphone usage and academic performance
Levine et al., 2007	Time spent instant messaging correlates with higher rates of distractibility during academic tasks
Mark et al., 2012	Individuals unable to access email for 5 days are less stressed, multitask less, and maintain longer task focus at work
Minear et al., 2013	Frequent media multitaskers exhibit greater impulsivity and lower fluid intelligence; No relationship between media multitasking and task-switching
Paul et al., 2012	Time spent on social networking sites is negatively correlated with everyday attention
Rosen et al., 2013	Accessing Facebook while studying is negatively correlated with GPA
Sana et al., 2013	In-class multitasking with a laptop is negatively correlated with academic performance for the user and all others within sightline of the screen