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. 2017 Apr 26;8:483. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00483

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Copyright © 2017 Liu, Xu, Yu and Yang.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Schematic representation of 4,4′-diaponeurosporene-producing Bacillus subtilis (B.s-Dia)-induced immunopotentiation. B.s-Dia could “activate” intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) in a CD36-dependent manner. Compared with “unactivated” IECs (left panel), B.s-Dia activated IECs (right panel) upregulated the production of CCL20, recruiting more dendritic cells (DCs), and downregulated the production of TGFβ, which might be responsible for the decrease of CD8αα⁺ intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs). When Salmonella typhimurium infected, activated IECs could rapidly respond and upregulated the production of IL-1β. These multiple outcomes of intragastric administration of B.s-Dia increased host defenses against S. typhimurium.