Table 3.
Potential applications of killer toxins.
| Applications | Organism/s | Toxin | General Description | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Biological models | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | K28 | Model for the study of proteins, lipids, and mechanisms required on endocytosis and retrograde trafficking in A/B toxins (as Ricin, Shiga, and Cholera toxins) | [166] |
| Biotyping | Killer strains panel | - | Fingerprinting and clustering yeast strains (genera Debaryomyces, Kluyveromyces, Saccharomyces, and Zygosaccharomyces) by use of killer toxin sensitive patterns | [167] |
| Saccharomyces cerevisiae | - | Typing S. cerevisiae strain by combined use of RAPD and killer toxin sensitivity patterns | [168] | |
| Cryptococcus laurentii (CBS 139) | - | Biotyping varieties of Cryptococcus neomorfans (var. neoformans and var. gattii) by differential killer toxin sensitivity patterns | [169] | |
| Killer strains panel | - | Combined use of mtDNA-RFLP patterns and killer toxin biotype to study wine S. cerevisiae strain diversity in different viticulture regions | [170] | |
| Killer strains panel | - | Fingerprinting of Saccharomyces wine yeast by differential killer sensitivity | [171] | |
| Pichia mrakii | K9 | Use Pichia genera killer toxins to differentiate members belonging to the Nocardia asteroides complex (N. asteroides, N. farcinica, and N. nova) | [172] | |
| Pichia lynferdii | K76 | |||
| Killer strains panel | - | Use of toxins produced by a selected panel of killer yeast to discriminate strains belonging to genus Candida by their killer sensitive patterns | [173] | |
| Antimycotics for the treatment of human infections | Pichia anomala | PaKT | Using killer toxin-like anti-idiotypic antibodies of P. anomala killer toxin (PaKT-antilds) to treat treating human Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. | [174] |
| Zygosaccharomyces bailii | Zygocin | Antifungal effect of Zygocin, a killer toxin produced by Z. bailii, on a broad-spectrum of sensitive fungal cells (Candida, Pichia, Hanseniaspora, Fusarium genera) | [104] | |
| Kodamaea ohmeri (HB55 and HB88) | - | Inhibition of C. neoformans (vars. neoformans, grubii and gattii), both clinical and environmental isolates, by two Brazilian yeasts selected for being able to inhibit human pathogenic fungi | [175] | |
| Filobasidium capsuligenum | Fc-1 | Use of a novel toxin with activity against the opportunistic fungal pathogen C. neoformans, as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of cryptococcosis | [176] | |
| Pichia anomala | K10 MAbs | Apply of antiidiotypic monoclonal antibodies (KT MAbs) from P. anomala against Aspergillus fumigatus. | [177] | |
| Williopsis mrakii var. mrakii (IFO 0895) | HM-1 | Activity of the killer toxin HM-1 from W. markii var. mrakii (formerly known as Hansenula mrakii) against Candida genus yeasts | [147] | |
| W. saturnus var. mrakii (MUCL 41968) | WmKT | Application of killer toxin (WmKT) secreted by W. saturnus var. mrakii, which is active against a wide range of pathogens. | [178] | |
| Antimycotics for treatment of animal infections | Kluyveromyces siamensis (HN12-1) | - | Use of a killer toxin of K. siamensis against Metschnikowia bicuspidata WCY, agent for the milky disease in crab | [179] |
| Pichia anomala (YF07b) | - | Apply of a killer toxin produced by the marine yeast P. anomala, against pathogenic yeast cells in crab, artemia, and shrimp | [68] | |
| Prevention of contaminants in fermentation industries | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | - | Effect of killer strains of S. cerevisiae on the growth of sensitive strains during wine fermentation, to improve the selected wine strain implantation. Sparkling wines quality improvement | [180,181] |
| Kluyveromyces phaffii (DBVPG 6076) | - | Use of K. phaffii killer toxin to control apiculate spoilage wine yeast (Hanseniaspora uvarum) | [182] | |
| Torulaspora delbrueckii (NPCC 1033) | TdKT | Application of a novel killer toxin (TdKT) from T. delbrueckii as a biocontrol tool in winemaking against different wine spoilage yeasts | [9] | |
| Ustilago maydis (CYC 1410) | - | Use of U. maydis toxins for the biocontrol of Brettanomyces bruxellensis for the reduction of aroma defects caused by this spoilage yeast | [10] | |
| Candida nodaensis (PYCC 3198) | CnKT | Application of CnKT in the preservation of salt-fermented foods, because of its high stability to salinity | [45] | |
| D. hansenii, K. marxianus, P. anomala, P. guilliermondii, S. cerevisiae | - | Control of olive table fermentation by the selection of killer yeast and their toxins which are able to suppress indigenous spoilage yeast growth | [86] | |
| Williopsis saturnus var. saturnus | - | Use of W. saturnus var. saturnus to inhibit spoilage yeast, as S. cerevisiae and K. marxianus, as a biopreservative agent on cheese making (in laboratory conditions) | [183] | |
| Wickerhamomyces anomalus (D2) | PiKT | Application of KwKT killer toxin produced by K. wickerhamii and PiKT produced by W. anomalus killer against B. bruxellensis during wine fermentation. | [184] | |
| Kluyveromyces wickerhamii (D15) | KwKT | |||
| Candida pyralidae (IWBT Y1140) | CpKT1 | Control of B. bruxellensis by C. pyralidae killer toxin in wine fermentation. | [185] | |
| Pichia membranifaciens | PMKT | Use of PMKT to control Zygosaccharomyces spp. contamination in winemaking. | [186] | |
| Wine quality improvement | S. cerevisiae (AWRI 796) | K2 | Interaction of S. cerevisiae killer strain (AWRI 796) and sensitive strain (Tyr 303) to accelerate the autolysis in the sparkling wine production to improve the final wine quality | [187] |
| Wickerhamomyces anomalus (CBS 1982, CBS5759) | - | Application of W. anomalus and S. cerevisiae in a mixed culture to positively influence chemical composition (higher amounts of polyphenol compounds and lower amounts of malic acid) and sensory features of produced apple wines | [188] | |
| Biological control | Kluyveromyces lactis (PCK27) | - | Use of killer strain K. lactis PCK27, to inhibit P. anomala, aerobic spoilage yeast in silage making | [144] |
| Williopsis mrakii | Mycocin HMK | Utilization of killer toxin HMK of W. mrakii, expressed in Aspergillus niger, to control both silage spoilage and yoghurt spoilage caused by yeasts | [90] |