Table 1.
Baseline dietary, medical history, and lifestyle characteristics of postmenopausal women participating in the Women’s Health Initiative across quintiles of dietary energy density (mean ± standard deviation or percentage)
| Dietary Energy Density (kcal/gram weight of food)a |
Overall (0.46–3.94) |
Quintile 1 (0.46–1.16) |
Quintile 2 (1.16–1.35) |
Quintile 3 (1.35–1.52) |
Quintile 4 (1.52–1.75) |
Quintile 5 (1.75–3.94) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Characteristics*** | n = 143,204 | n = 28,641 | n = 28,641 | n = 28,641 | n = 28,641 | n = 28,640 |
| Age (years) | 63.2 ± 7.2 | 64.4 ± 7.3 | 63.7 ± 7.2 | 63.2 ± 7.1 | 62.7 ± 7.1 | 61.7 ± 7.0 |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||||
| Non-Hispanic white | 84.5 | 86.5 | 87.4 | 85.8 | 84.1 | 78.6 |
| Black | 7.76 | 5.27 | 5.15 | 6.65 | 8.26 | 13.5 |
| Hispanic | 3.63 | 3.12 | 2.95 | 3.37 | 3.83 | 4.88 |
| Asian or Pacific Islander | 2.41 | 3.33 | 2.78 | 2.46 | 2.14 | 1.34 |
| American Indian or Alaskan Native | 0.36 | 0.32 | 0.30 | 0.37 | 0.37 | 0.46 |
| Other or unknown | 1.36 | 1.49 | 1.40 | 1.33 | 1.30 | 1.26 |
| Neighborhood socioeconomic statusb | 76.0 ± 8.4 | 77.1 ± 7.8 | 76.9 ± 7.8 | 76.3 ± 8.2 | 75.7 ± 8.4 | 74.1 ± 9.2 |
| Weight (kg) | 72.5 ± 14.8 | 68.3 ± 13.0 | 70.5 ± 13.7 | 72.6 ± 14.4 | 74.2 ± 15.0 | 77.1 ± 16.3 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 27.7 ± 5.4 | 26.2 ± 4.7 | 26.9 ± 5.0 | 27.6 ± 5.2 | 28.2 ± 5.4 | 29.3 ± 5.9 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 85.8 ± 13.1 | 82.1 ± 11.9 | 84.0 ± 12.3 | 85.7 ± 12.7 | 87.2 ± 13.1 | 89.8 ± 13.9 |
| Physical activity (MET-hr/wk)c Smoking |
12.7 ± 13.8 | 18.2 ± 16.2 | 14.5 ± 13.8 | 12.3 ± 13.0 | 10.3 ± 12.0 | 7.76 ± 10.7 |
| Never smoker | 52.1 | 53.8 | 53.1 | 52.7 | 51.8 | 48.8 |
| < 5 pack-yearsd | 14.6 | 15.8 | 15.4 | 14.6 | 14.3 | 12.8 |
| 5 to < 20 pack-years | 14.5 | 14.4 | 14.6 | 14.9 | 14.4 | 14.1 |
| ≥ 20 pack-years | 18.9 | 16.0 | 16.9 | 17.8 | 19.5 | 24.3 |
| Alcohol | ||||||
| < 1 drink/wk | 60.4 | 60.9 | 56.9 | 58.3 | 59.6 | 66.4 |
| 1 to < 7 drinks/wk | 27.1 | 27.4 | 29.9 | 28.5 | 27.4 | 22.3 |
| ≥ 7 drinks/wk | 12.5 | 11.7 | 13.2 | 13.2 | 13.0 | 11.4 |
| Hypertension | ||||||
| Never hypertensive | 68.1 | 69.8 | 69.4 | 68.3 | 67.3 | 65.7 |
| Untreated hypertensive | 7.92 | 7.75 | 7.60 | 7.71 | 7.93 | 8.64 |
| Treated hypertensive | 24.0 | 22.5 | 23.1 | 24.0 | 24.8 | 25.6 |
| Family history of diabetes | ||||||
| No | 65.1 | 67.0 | 66.7 | 65.7 | 64.2 | 61.9 |
| Yes | 30.5 | 29.0 | 29.4 | 30.2 | 31.4 | 32.4 |
| Don’t know | 4.44 | 3.96 | 3.85 | 4.14 | 4.49 | 5.74 |
| Hormone therapy use | ||||||
| Never | 32.5 | 31.8 | 30.9 | 31.2 | 32.6 | 35.8 |
| Past | 22.9 | 22.8 | 22.6 | 22.9 | 22.8 | 23.6 |
| Current | 44.6 | 45.4 | 46.5 | 46.0 | 44.6 | 40.6 |
| Dietary intake | ||||||
| Total energy (kcal/d) | 1449 ± 591 | 1178 ± 402 | 1350 ± 482 | 1445 ± 541 | 1550 ± 609 | 1723 ± 723 |
| Total weight dietary intake (g/d) | 1014 ± 390 | 1164 ± 384 | 1075 ± 382 | 1009 ± 377 | 953 ± 374 | 868 ± 364 |
| Total protein (g/d) | 62.2 ± 26.4 | 53.8 ± 20.9 | 60.5 ± 23.8 | 63.3 ± 25.8 | 65.7 ± 27.9 | 67.5 ± 30.5 |
| Animal protein (g/d) | 43.0 ± 21.2 | 34.6 ± 16.7 | 41.2 ±18.7 | 44.2 ± 20.4 | 46.7 ± 22.1 | 48.3 ± 24.6 |
| Plant protein (g/d) | 19.2 ± 8.5 | 19.2 ± 8.2 | 19.3 ± 8.2 | 19.1 ± 8.3 | 19.0 ± 8.6 | 19.2 ± 9.2 |
| Carbohydrates (g/d) | 174.4 ± 70.8 | 174.1 ± 63.2 | 176.1 ± 67.4 | 173.5 ± 69.7 | 173.0 ± 73.1 | 175.5 ± 79.3 |
| Total fat (g/d) | 59.0 ± 31.7 | 33.8 ± 14.5 | 48.4 ± 19.5 | 58.4 ± 23.7 | 68.7 ± 28.6 | 85.6 ± 38.6 |
| Saturated fat (g/d) | 19.4 ± 11.2 | 10.6 ± 5.0 | 15.7 ± 6.9 | 19.2 ± 8.5 | 22.8 ± 10.3 | 28.7 ± 13.9 |
| Polyunsaturated fat (g/d) | 12.4 ± 6.9 | 7.7 ± 3.5 | 10.4 ± 4.6 | 12.2 ± 5.4 | 14.2 ± 6.5 | 17.6 ± 8.8 |
| Monounsaturated fat (g/d) | 22.4 ± 12.3 | 12.5 ± 5.7 | 18.3 ± 7.6 | 22.2 ± 9.2 | 26.3 ± 11.1 | 32.9 ± 14.9 |
| Added sugar (g/d) | 40.8 ± 23.9 | 33.0 ± 18.1 | 38.2 ± 20.6 | 40.4 ± 22.1 | 43.5 ± 24.4 | 49.2 ± 29.6 |
| Glycemic load (based on total carb.) | 92.7 ± 38.8 | 87.7 ± 33.1 | 91.8 ± 35.9 | 92.3 ± 37.9 | 94.0 ± 40.3 | 97.9 ± 45.0 |
| Energy density (kcal/g) | 1.46 ± 0.36 | 1.02 ± 0.11 | 1.26 ± 0.05 | 1.43 ± 0.05 | 1.63 ± 0.06 | 2.00 ± 0.23 |
| Hormone therapy trial arm | ||||||
| Estrogen-alone intervention | 3.13 | 2.63 | 2.65 | 2.89 | 3.30 | 4.20 |
| Estrogen-alone control | 3.18 | 2.59 | 2.66 | 2.87 | 3.44 | 4.37 |
| Estrogen + progesterone intervention | 5.29 | 4.65 | 5.27 | 5.14 | 5.27 | 6.13 |
| Estrogen + progesterone control | 5.03 | 4.60 | 4.79 | 4.75 | 5.28 | 5.72 |
| Not randomized | 83.4 | 85.5 | 84.6 | 84.3 | 82.7 | 79.6 |
| Dietary modification trial arm | ||||||
| Intervention | 12.5 | 2.46 | 8.68 | 14.4 | 18.2 | 18.8 |
| Control | 18.7 | 3.65 | 13.2 | 21.7 | 26.8 | 28.3 |
| Not randomized | 68.8 | 93.9 | 78.1 | 63.9 | 54.9 | 53.0 |
| Calcium-vitamin D trial arm | ||||||
| Intervention | 11.5 | 5.56 | 9.25 | 12.6 | 14.4 | 15.8 |
| Control | 11.5 | 5.56 | 9.38 | 12.4 | 14.8 | 15.3 |
| Not randomized | 77.0 | 88.9 | 81.4 | 75.0 | 80.8 | 69.0 |
| Observational study only | 57.2 | 80.3 | 65.9 | 53.5 | 44.9 | 41.3 |
a
Apparent overlap in DED quintiles is due to rounding at the 4th decimal place
b
neighborhood socioeconomic status is a summary score used to indicate both education and income of a participant’s Census tract, where a higher score indicates greater educational attainment and/or income
c
MET-hr/week = metabolic equivalent/week
d
A pack-year is the amount of packs smoked daily for a period of one year; e.g., 1 pack-year = 1 pack per day, for one year
***
All characteristics were significantly different across DED quintiles (chi-square tests for categorical variables and ANVOA for continuous variables, p<0.001)