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. 2017 Apr 20;18(4):877. doi: 10.3390/ijms18040877

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© 2017 by the author.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Schematic representation of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) pathway. Left-hand side of the dotted line represents canonical pathway, wherein signaling is transmitted by a SMAD (sma and mothers against decapentaplegic)-dependent mechanism, whereas the right-hand side represents non-canonical pathway, which is SMAD-independent. R-SMADs: Regulatory elements SMADs, Ubi: Ubiquitin, JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase, TAK1: TGF-β associated kinase 1, TRAF6: TNF receptor-associated factor 6, P: Phosphate group.