Table 1.

Cohort characteristics according to individual, neighborhood, and state characteristics (2002‐2008, inclusive)

Variable	Number	Percentage	Grand mean (minimum, maximum)	SD a
Gender
Female	18 352	30.9
Male	41 008	69.1
Age (years)			39.4 (18, 65)	10.8
Tenure (years)			5.8 (0, 47)	7.7
Average weekly wage ($)			403.0 (1, 1311)	187.5
Injury severity
Less severe	47 805	80.5
More severe	11 555	19.5
Early opioid prescribing (MEA b per 100 mg)
No	43 013	72.5	3.9 (0, 29.4)	3.8
Yes	16 347	27.5
Early lumbar MRI c scan
No	41 805	70.4
Yes	17 555	29.6
Lumbar spine surgery
No	53 869	90.7
Yes	5491	9.3
Industry type
Mining	1071	1.8
Construction	2087	3.5
Transportation, communications, electric, gas, and sanitary services	16 305	27.5
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing	588	1.0
Manufacturing	10 887	18.3
Wholesale trade	4515	7.6
Retail trade	6626	11.2
Services	14 782	24.9
Public administration	1990	3.4
Finance, insurance, and real estate	509	0.9
Litigation status
No	40 178	67.7
Yes	19 182	32.3
Median household income (10 000 $)			5.3 (0.6, 25.0)	2.1
Rural population (%)			21.2 (0, 100)	35.8
White population (%)			73.7 (0, 100)	25.4
Educational attainment < some college (%)			48.7 (0, 100)	16.1
Wage replacement rate (%)			68 (60, 80)	3
Waiting period (days)			5.3 (3, 7)	1.9
Retroactive period (days)			15.7 (0, 42)	7.0
State medical fee schedule
No	10 498	17.7
Yes	48 862	82.3
Initial treating provider choice
Allowed	22 516	37.9
Not allowed	36 844	62.1
Treating provider change
Allowed	8282	14.0
Allowed once	14 241	24.0
Not Allowed	36 837	62.1
Annual population below 100% poverty (%)			12.3 (5.4, 22.6)	2.7
Annual unemployment rate			5.3 (2.5, 8.3)	1.0
Annual Gini coefficient			45.4 (38.0, 54.0)	2.2
Annual rate of disabled workers receiving SSDI d			3.4 (1.7, 7.8)	0.9

^aStandard deviation.

^bMorphine equivalent amount.

^cMagnetic resonance imaging.

^dSocial security disability insurance.