Table 1.

Classes of medications and interventions tried with varying efficacy

Medications

NSAIDs

Opioids (full and partial agonists)

Antidepressants (tricyclics and serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors)

Antiepileptics

GABA analogs

Sodium channel blockers (oral, epidural, IV, IT)

Sodium channel blockers (small molecule, topical)

Calcium channel blockers

Alpha-2-agonists

Dissociative anesthetics (ketamine)

TrpV1 agonists (cream, patch)

Glucocorticoids (oral, epidural)

Quinolines (hydroxychloroquine)

Biologics (IVIG)

Nitrates and phosphodiesterase inhibitors

Microtubule polymerization inhibitors

Antihyperglycemics (rosiglitazone)

Xanthine derivatives (pentoxyfylline)

Ryanodine receptor antagonists (dantrolene)

Interventions

Thoracolumbar spinal cord stimulator, T11-L3 (trial only)

Epidural steroid injections

Epidural and intrathecal infusions

Local anesthetics (lidocaine, bupivacaine)

Opioids (fentanyl, dilaudid)

Clonidine

Sympathetic ganglion blocks

Peripheral nerve blocks

Perivascular blocks

Abbreviations: NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; GABA, gamma aminobutyric acid; IV, intravenous; IT, intrathecal; IVIG, intravenous immunoglobulin.