Table 2.
The impact of sanitation interventions on household latrine coverage and/or use, organized by intervention description.
| References | Intervention Description | Country | Follow-up | Study Design | Latrine Coverage |
Latrine Use |
Use | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Int. | Con. | Δa | Int. | Con. | Δa | definition | |||||
| Gross and Günther (2014) | Exposure to any sanitation project in last 5 years | Benin | 1–5 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | nr | nr | 4% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Briceño et al. (2015) | CLTS + hand-washing | Tanzania | 3 yr. | RCT | nr | nr | 7% | nr | nr | 9% | HH does not (always or regularly) practice OD |
| CLTS + sanitation marketing | Tanzania | 3 yr. | RCT | nr | nr | 12% | 89% | nr | 10% | ||
| Cameron et al. (2013) | CLTS + marketing | Indonesia | 2 yr. | RCT | 44% | 44% | 0% | 66% | 64% | 2% | HH does not (normally) practice OD |
| Elbers et al. (2012) | CLTS | Mozambique | 2 yr. | Controlled before-and-after | nr | nr | 14% | nr | na | 12% | Unspecified “Use of latrines” |
| Guiteras et al. (2015) | CLTS-like Latrine Promotion Program (LPP) | Bangladesh | 1–2 yr. | RCT | 72% | 68% | −1% | 67% | 60% | 2% | HH does not openly defecate or use hanging toilet |
| CLTS-like LPP + latrine subsidy | Bangladesh | 1–2 yr. | RCT | 80% | 68% | 7% | 74% | 60% | 9% | ||
| CLTS-like LPP + latrine subsidy + supplies market | Bangladesh | 1–2 yr. | RCT | 79% | 68% | 8% | 73% | 60% | 9% | ||
| Harvey (2011) | CLTS (pilot data) | Zambia | 0.25 | Before-and-after | 88% | na | 65% | nr | na | nr | na |
| CLTS (follow-up study data) | Zambia | 0.75 | Before-and after | 93% | na | 55% | nr | na | nr | na | |
| Kullman et al. (2011) | CLTS vs. non CLTS NGO | Bangladesh | 4–5 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | 51% | 51% | 0% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Pickering et al. (2015) | CLTS | Mali | 1.5 yr. | RCT | 65% | 35% | 30% | 78% | 44% | 33% | No reported OD (by men, women, and children) |
| Sah and Negussie (2009) | CLTS | Eastern and Southern Africa | 0.25 yr. | Before-and-after | 93% | na | 49% | nr | na | nr | na |
| Whaley and Webster (2011) | CLTS vs. health clubb | Zimbabwe | 2 yr. | Non-randomized CT | 95% | 98% | −3% | 63% | 51% | 12% | Latrine used and clean |
| Huda et al. (2012) | Community mobilization (Community hygiene promoters led WASH mobilization) | Bangladesh | 1.5 yr. | Controlled before-and-after | 38% | 38% | −6% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Kullman et al. (2011) | Community mobilization (Gov’t intervention + donor vs. Gov’t w/out donor) | Bangladesh | 4–5 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | 58% | 53% | 5% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Ngondi et al. (2010) | Community mobilization (sanitation training, education & construction demonstrations) | Ethiopia | 3 yr. | Before-and-after | 34% | na | 32% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Choudhury and Hossain (2006) | Latrine subsidy/provision | Bangladesh | 3 yr. | Before-and-after | 74% | na | 26% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Pradhan and Rawlings (2002) | Latrine subsidy/provision | Nicaragua | 7 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | 98% | 77% | 19% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Pronyk et al. (2012) | Latrine provision as part of multi-faceted development project addressing MDGs | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | 29% | 16% | 13% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Simms et al. (2005) | Latrine provision | The Gambia | 2–4 yr. | Before-and-after | 95% | na | 63% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Ahmed et al. (2010) | Latrine provision + education | Bangladesh | 0.5 yr. | Before-and-after | 60% | na | 28% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Kiwanuka et al. (2015) | Latrine subsidy/provision + sanitation education | Uganda | 10 yr. | Before-and-after | 43% | na | 14% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Mathews and Kumari (2004) | Latrine subsidy/provision + sanitation education | India | 2–14 yr. | Before-and-after | 75% | na | 39% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Rauniyar et al. (2011) | Sanitation assistance + hygiene education + water supply | Pakistan | 6–13 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | 82% | 81% | 1% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Chase et al. (2015) | Sanitation education (behavior change communication) | Cambodia | 1 yr. | Controlled before-and-after | nr | nr | −7% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Cumberland et al. (2008) | Sanitation education (mass media + video) | Ethiopia | 3 yr. | Controlled before-and-after | 67% | 40% | 27% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Sanitation education (mass media) | Ethiopia | 3 yr. | Controlled before-and-after | 64% | 40% | 24% | nr | nr | nr | na | |
| Fenn et al. (2012) | Sanitation education + water supply | Ethiopia | 5 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | nr | nr | −1% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Sanitation education + water supply + nutrition/health education + drugs | Ethiopia | 5 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | nr | nr | 10% | nr | nr | nr | na | |
| Jinadu et al. (2007) | Sanitation education (focused on safe disposal of child feces) | Nigeria | 1 yr. | RCT | 7% | 3% | 4% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| King et al. (2013) | Sanitation education (Latrine promotion + hygiene education) | Ethiopia | 8–11 yr. | Before-and-after | 42% | na | 39% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Luby (2015) | Sanitation education (health promoters) | Bangladesh | 1 yr. | RCT | 94% | 94% | 0% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Murthy et al. (1990) | Sanitation education (mass media) | India | 0.5 yr. | Before-and-after | nr | nr | nr | 67% | na | 6% | Exclusive use of community latrine |
| Saowakontha et al. (1993) | Sanitation education (motivation on construction and use + chemotherapy) | Thailand | 3 yr. | Controlled before-and-after | 58% | 78% | −20% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Sanitation education (motivation on construction and use + intensive chemotherapy) | Thailand | 3 yr. | Controlled before-and-after | 75% | 78% | −3% | nr | nr | nr | na | |
| Waterkeyn and Cairncross (2005) | Sanitation education (community health club; place A) | Zimbabwe | 2 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | 43% | 2% | 41% | 41% | 2% | 39% | Used a clean latrine |
| Sanitation education (community health club; place B) | Zimbabwe | 2 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | 74% | 57% | 17% | 38% | 31% | 7% | ||
| Devine and Sijbesma (2011) | Sanitation marketing | Vietnam | 5 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | 59% | 39% | 20% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Guiteras et al. (2015) | Supplies market only | Bangladesh | 1–2 yr. | RCT | 80% | 68% | 3% | 73% | 60% | 3% | HH does not openly defecate or use hanging toilet |
| Barreto et al. (2007) | Sewerage | Brazil | 6 yr. | Before-and-after | 87% | na | 6% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Moraes et al. (2003) | Sewerage | Brazil | >5 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | 91% | 77% | 14% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Pradhan and Rawlings (2002) | Sewerage | Nicaragua | 7 yr. | Nonrandomized CT | 100% | 9% | 91% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Arnold et al. (2010) | TSC-like | India | 5 yr. | Controlled before-and-after | 48% | 15% | 33% | 23% | 12% | 11% | HH does not practice OD |
| Clasen et al. (2014) | TSC | India | 3 yr. | RCT | 63% | 12% | 51% | 36% | 9% | 27% | Functional latrine and signs of present use |
| Hammer and Spears (2013) | TSC | India | 1.5 yr. | RCT | nr | nr | 8% | nr | nr | nr | na |
| Patil et al. (2014) | TSC | India | 2 yr. | RCT | 41% | 23% | 18% | 27% | 17% | 9% | HH using individual household latrine |
| Pattanayak et al. (2009) | TSC + intensified IEC | India | 1 yr. | RCT | 32% | 13% | 29% | nr | nr | nr | na |
Int.= Mean prevalence of coverage or use in the intervention arm. Con. = Mean prevalence of coverage or use in the control arm. na = not applicable (e.g. before-and-after studies did not have separate control groups). nr = not reported.
a
Some differences do not line up with the reported prevalences because we extracted the most-adjusted results from each paper (i.e. difference-in-difference).
b
Control group also received a different sanitation intervention.