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. 2017 Jan 1;37(4):1182–1191. doi: 10.1177/0271678X17690537

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© The Author(s) 2017

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).

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Figure 4. — Microglia determine CSD susceptibility. Multiple CSD inductions cause M1-polarized activation of microglia. Resultant production of TNFα and ROS enhances the susceptibility of brain tissue to CSD development. The CSD-promoting action of TNFα can be inhibited by IGF-1. In addition, microglia polarized to the M2 activation mode by environment enrichment exhibit much less CSD susceptibility. The action of environmental enrichment can be mimicked by nasal administration of interleukin-11 (IL-11).