. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2017 May 3.

Published in final edited form as: Eur J Soc Secur. 2017 Mar 9;16(4):308–346. doi: 10.1177/138826271401600403

Table A2.

Child, mother and family characteristics by fathers’ leave-taking (columns add 100% per category)

	Australia			Denmark			United Kingdom			United States

	Took leave	No leave		Took leave	No leave		Took leave	No leave		Took leave	No leave

	(%)	(%)	p-value	(%)	(%)	p-value	(%)	(%)	p-value	(%)	(%)	p-value
Child characteristics
Boys (vs. girls)	47.3	50.9		52.3	50.4		51.0	51.5		51.3	53.0
Age in months	8.7	8.8		-	-		9.2	9.2		10.3	10.4
Ethincity: white	98.1	98.6		99.7	98.7	^**	91.7	84.6	^***	69.3	55.2	^***
Non-native language (vs. native)	12.3	20.7		1.1	3.0	^*	7.2	15.2	^***	14.9	26.1	^***
Prematurity (<37weeks)	5.8	6.1		4.7	6.3		7.5	7.5		9.5	9.6
Low birthweight (<2.5kg)	4.3	5.6		3.8	5.0		5.7	6.3		6.1	5.9
Number of siblings at 9-month
None	40.8	34.2		44.8	42.4		44.6	36.1	^***	40.2	38.7
One	39.3	40.1		37.8	37.4		38.0	38.5		36.2	31.5	^*
Two or more	19.9	25.8		17.4	20.1		17.4	25.5	^***	23.6	29.8	^**
Child’s temperament
Very temperamental	32.9	29.5		18.2	18.6		36.9	38.7		33.8	38.4	^*
Average temperament	31.5	31.7		70.3	69.7		37.2	34.4		29.0	28.1
Not very tempermental	29.9	31.1		11.3	11.5		25.8	27.0		23.6	33.5

Mother’s characteristics
Worked during pregnancy	70.8	65.8		75.8	70.6	^*	78.9	68.3	^***	74.0	71.6
Not working at 9-month	59.0	50.3		97.5	96.5		45.4	39.5	^**	52.6	47.7	^*
Mother’s usual working hours
0 hours	59.0	50.3		8.6	10.6		39.1	48.2	^**	45.7	48.9
1-34 hours per week	33.5	40.3		18.6	21.9	⁺	44.4	36.7	^**	23.3	18.6	^*
35+ hours per week	7.5	9.4		72.7	67.5	^**	16.5	15.1		31.1	32.4
Age at child’s birth
<20	0.6	0.4		0.7	0.9		2.8	4.3		5.0	6.5	^*
20-24	5.4	6.0		12.3	11.2		11.1	14.7		18.5	24.0	^***
25-29	23.1	21.4		40.7	37.8		29.3	28.3		29.3	29.9
30-34	42.5	38.5		34.0	35.0		37.4	32.4		30.1	21.8	^***
35+	28.4	33.8		12.3	15.1		19.5	20.3		17.2	17.7
Mother’s education at chid’s birth
Low	12.6	16.2		32.7	36.3		5.5	11.0		37.2	52.4	^***
Medium	52.5	55.8		60.0	55.1	⁺	51.0	53.9		24.8	20.9	^*
High	35.0	28.1		7.0	7.1		43.5	35.2	^***	38.1	26.7	^***
Foreign-born (vs. native born)	20.0	27.7		0.8	1.9		8.4	13.5		18.5	29.5	^***
Depressed at 9 month	32.8	35.0		2.4	1.7		22.1	20.3		33.8	35.8

Family characteristics
Household income at child’s first year
lowest 20% (approx)	9.0	19.9		17.9	35.3	^***	4.1	10.3	^**	10.1	19.0	^***
2nd quintile	18.2	18.3		20.8	14.5	^***	30.2	33.7	^*	20.4	26.7	^**
3rd quintile	23.8	20.3		21.1	11.9	^***	27.7	23.2	^*	39.0	33.8	^*
4th quintle	23.6	16.8		20.9	13.4	^***	22.8	16.8	^**	20.5	20.5	^***
top 20%	21.6	19.0		19.3	24.7	^***	15.1	16.1
Household tenure at 9-month
Owned	77.6	75.2		67.2	62.4		81.6	70.3	^***	65.6	50.0	^***
Renting	19.8	19.2		27.2	32.6		8.7	13.9	^**	29.2	44.4	^***
Other	2.6	5.6		1.8	0.9		9.7	15.9	^**	5.2	5.9

Father commitment at birth
Was present in delivery room	-	-		-	-		95.3	89.5	^*	96.5	87.8	^***
Attended birth class	-	-		-	-		-	-		48.2	35.7	^***

Notes: 1. All numbers were weighted using sampling weights. Significance tests were conducted to compare fathers who took any leave with those who took no leave.

⁺

p < 0.10,

p < 0.05,

^**

p < 0.01,

^***

p < 0.001.