Table I.
Overview of the Carriers Covered in this Review
| Class | Types | Delivery form(s) | Preclinical studies | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural polymers | Collagen | Powders | BMP-2 in: | |
| Membrane films | - Maxillofacial reconstruction in Rhesus monkeys | [104] | ||
| Aqueous forms | - Rabbit ulna osteotomy model | [103] | ||
| Gels | - Healing in goat tibial fracture model | [102] | ||
| Nanofibers | BMP-7 in: | |||
| Putty | - Healing of segmental defects in non-human primates | [101] | ||
| Absorbable sponge | - Lumbar vertebral interbody fusion in sheep | [100] | ||
| Hyaluronic acid/Hyaluronan | BMP-2 in: | |||
| Gels | - Dog alveolar ridge defects | [113] | ||
| Scaffolds | - Mid-tibial unions in rabbits | [114] | ||
| Aqueous forms | - Rat calvarial defects | [115] | ||
| Gelatin | BMP-2 in: | |||
| Hydrogel | - Ulnar bone segmental defects in New Zealand White rabbits | [117] | ||
| Microparticles on a composite scaffold | - Ectopic bone production in a mouse model | [118] | ||
| Fibrin | BMP-2 in: | |||
| Hydrogel | - Calvarial bone defects in New Zealand White rabbits | [119] | ||
| Chitosan | BMP-2 in: | |||
| Film | - C2C12 cell line of mouse muscle myoblast cells | [121] | ||
| Alginate | BMP-2 in: | |||
| Aqueous form | - Posterolateral spine fusion in rabbit model | [122] | ||
| Silk | BMP-2 in: | |||
| Film | - Cell culture inserts | [126] | ||
| 3-D porous scaffolds | - Critical sized cranial defects in mice | [125] | ||
| Microparticles | - Rat ectopic model | [124] | ||
| Synthetic polymers | Poly-α-hydroxy acids | BMP-2 in: | ||
| i) Polylactic acid (PLA) | Aqueous form | - Canine posterolateral spinal fusion model | [128] | |
| Preshaped implants | - Mandibular bone repair in rats | [127] | ||
| ii) Polyglycolic acid (PGA) | BMP-2 in: | |||
| Nonwoven fabric made from PGA fibers, scaffolds, nanoparticles | - Induction of bone is Wistar rat thigh muscle | [131] | ||
| - Critical-sized calvarial defects in rats | [130] | |||
| ii) poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) | BMP-2 in: | |||
| Microparticles | - Intramuscular bone induction in mice | [136] | ||
| Implants | - Mandibular defects in canine model | [135] | ||
| 3-D scaffolds | - Differentiation of rabbit bone marrow stromal cells | [134] | ||
| Capsules | - Segmental bone defects in rabbit radius | [133] | ||
| BMP-7 in: | ||||
| Gels | - Bone formation from rabbit skeletal muscle cells | [132] | ||
| Polyethylene glycol (PEG) | BMP-2 in: | |||
| Hydrogel | - Critical-sized defects in rat crania | [137] | ||
| Poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) | BMP-2 in: | |||
| 3-D scaffolds | - Osteoinduction in bone marrow stromal cells | [140] | ||
| Polypropylene fumarate (PPF) | Porous scaffolds | BMP-2 in: | [141] | |
| - Goat ectopic implantation model | ||||
| Poloxamers | Freeze-dried powder | BMP-2 in: | [142] | |
| - Bone induction in Swiss-Webster mice | ||||
| Block copolymers | BMP-2 in: | |||
| i) PLA-PEG | Pellets | - New bone induction in dorsal muscles of mice | [145–147] | |
| ii) PLA-DX-PEG | BMP-2 in: | |||
| implant | - New bone induction in dorsal muscles of mice | [148] | ||
| Inorganic materials (ceramics) | Calcium Phosphate Materials | BMP-2 in: | ||
| i) Hydroxyapatite | Fiber mesh | - Rat posterolateral spinal fusion | [153] | |
| Cement | - Rabbit unilateral radii defect | [154] | ||
| BMP-7 in: | ||||
| Porous scaffold | - Spinal fusion in sheep model | [155] | ||
| - Orthotopic calvarial defects in baboons | [156] | |||
| ii) β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) | BMP-2 in: | |||
| Porous multi-cylinder scaffolds | - Long intercalated rib defects in dogs | [160] | ||
| Cement | - Trepanation defects in sheep | [161] | ||
| Granules | - Spinal fusion in canines | [162] | ||
| iii) Biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) | BMP-2 in: | |||
| Scaffolds | - Rat calvarial bone defects | [164] | ||
| - Intertransverse spine arthrodesis in non-human primates | [82] | |||
| Composites | Semi-synthetic polymers | |||
| PEGylated fibrinogen | Hydrogel | BMP-2 in critical size calvarial defects in mice | [90] | |
| RGD-Alginate | Nanofiber mesh hydrogel | BMP-2 in bilateral critical size defects in rats | [166] | |
| PCL-Collagen | Nanofibrous scaffold | BMP-2 in in vitro activation of pre-osteoblasts | [167] | |
| CMC-Collagen | Putty | BMP-7 in critical size defects in ovine tibiae | [168] | |
| Polymers + Ceramics Collagen-Biphasic calcium phosphate |
Scaffold | BMP-2 in rabbit calvarial defects | [173] | |
| Three-component PEG-PCL-PEG copolymer-collagen-n-hydroxyapatite |
Hydrogel | BMP-2 in cranial defects in rabbits | [174] | |