Table 1.
Emerging risk factors for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease
| Lipid-related biomarkers |
| High-density lipoprotein cholesterol |
| Triglycerides |
| Lipoprotein(a) |
| Apolipoprotein A1 and B |
| Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 |
| Inflammatory biomarkers |
| C-reactive protein |
| Interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, IL-18 |
| Tumour necrosis factor-α |
| Matrix metalloproteinase-9 |
| Soluble CD40 ligand |
| Vascular and cellular adhesion molecule |
| Leukocyte count |
| Biomarkers of hemostasis and thrombosis |
| Fibrinogen |
| Coagulation factors II, V and VIII |
| von Willebrand factor antigen |
| Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) |
| Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 |
| D-dimer |
| Cardiac-related biomarkers |
| High sensitivity troponin |
| B-type natriuretic peptide |
| Kidney-related biomarkers |
| Creatinine |
| Microalbuminuria |
| Cystatin C |
| Calcium |
| Phosphate/fibroblast growth factor 23 |
| Uric acid |
| Other factors |
| Homocysteine |
| Vitamin D |
| Metabolism-related (e.g. HbA1c) |
| Platelet-related factors (e.g. platelet volume) |
| Endothelial dysfunction (e.g. nitric oxide) |
| Environmental exposures (e.g. air pollution, radiation) |
| Other non-invasive measures of vascular disease (e.g. carotid plaque) |