Table 1.
Clinical trials that are using viruses as direct vaccines or as vectors in the preparation of autologous cell-based vaccines.
| Virus | Treatment Type | Transgene (Tumor Antigen or Cytokine) | Phase of Trial | Outcome | Immune Response | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Retrovirus | Therapeutic vaccination | IL-2 | I | No objective response demonstrated | Tumor-specific CTL | [68] |
| Vaccinia virus | Therapeutic vaccination | CEA | I | No objective response | Not reported | [69] |
| Adenovirus | Therapeutic vaccination | CEA | I | Increased overall survival | CEA-specific immunity | [70] |
| Adenovirus | Therapeutic vaccination | GUCY2C | I | Not published | GUCY2C-specific antibody and T-cell responses | NCT01972737 |
| Baculovirus | Therapeutic vaccination | Ep-CAM | I | Not published | Ep-CAM-specific cellular immune response | [71] |
| Canarypox virus | Therapeutic vaccination | Ep-CAM | I | Not published | Ep-CAM-specific cellular immune response | [72] |
| Avipox virus | Therapeutic vaccination | CEA, B7-1 | Pilot | Stable disease in some patients | CEA-specific CTL | [73] |
| Vaccinia + Avipox virus | Therapeutic vaccination | CEA | I | No objective anti-tumor response | Antibody against CEA | [74] |
| Vaccinia + Fowlpox | Therapeutic vaccination | CEA, B7-1, ICAM-1, LFA-3 | I | Stable disease in some patients | CEA-specific CTL | [75,76] |
| Vaccinia virus | Oncolytic virotherapy | GM-CSF | I | Not published | Not published | NCT01394939 |
| Herpes simplex virus | Oncolytic virotherapy | None | I | Not published | Not published | NCT00149396 |
| Adenovirus | Oncolytic virotherapy | None | I | Not published | Not published | NCT02028442 |
IL: interleukin; CEA: carcinoembryonic antigen; GUCY2C: guanylyl cylase C; Ep-CAM: epithelial cell adhesion molecule; ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule; LFA: lymphocyte function-associated antigen; GM-CSF: granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor.