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. 2017 May 3;7:1441. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-01451-7

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Centennial to millennial-scale volcanic impacts on climate over the past 10,000 years. (a) Raw volcanic forcing, (b) Volcanic Impact Index (VII), the difference between two curves in Fig. 3c. (c) ΔNH sea-ice cover (y-axis is reversed) is calculated as differences between experiments with full forcing and without volcanic forcing (ensemble means) in 21-year RMs, (d) as in (c) but for ocean temperature (54–484 m) in 40°N–90°N. Red dotted lines in (e–i) show bandpass-filtered Greenland temperatures, which are compared to (e) modeled NH average temperatures (Methods), and VII, (f) Na⁺ ion in GISP2 (a proxy for atmospheric circulation)²², (g) K⁺ ion in GISP2 (proxy for atmospheric circulation)²², (h) Oman cave stalagmite δ¹⁸O¹, (i) Dongge cave stalagmite δ¹⁸O^64,65. Different bandpass filters were applied for (e,f,g,h) and (i) with 400–4000 year bands and 200–2000 year bands after linear detrending, respectively (Methods). Red areas in (b–d) indicate periods under relatively strong volcanic influence. Blue shades are the Greenland cold episodes as in Fig. 2.