Table 3.
Characteristics of high-quality studies included in the review (Summer Olympic disciplines)
| References | Country | Final sample size | Age [years] mean ± SDa (range) | Level | Response rate [%] | Collection mode | Definition of pain | Localization | Recall periods | Prevalence [%] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Basketball | ||||||||||
| Brynhildsen et al. [34] | Sweden | 150 (F) | Med: 21 (16–31) | Swedish first league clubs | 85 | Q | Subjective feeling of back pain; if she had suffered from low back pain ever (previous) or during the last wk (current) | LB | LT, 7-d | LT: 53, 7-d: 21 |
| Cabri et al. [30] | Germany | 100 | 20.4 (15–35) | Regional/national squat/selection | 50 | Q | Pain, ache, or discomfort in the lower back with or without radiation to one or both legs | B, LB, TH, C | LT, 1-yr, 7-d | LT: B: 76, LB: 46, TH: 17, C: 22; 1-yr: LB: 35, TH: 20, C: 21; 7-d: LB: 18, TH: 6, C: 4 |
| Cycling | ||||||||||
| Clarsen et al. [44] | Norway | 109 | 26 ± 4 | UCI World Tour/Tour de France level, UCI Europe Tour level |
94 | In | Pain, ache, or soreness in the low-back with or without radiating pain to the gluteal area or lower extremities | LB | LT, 1-yr | LT: 65, 1-yr: 58 |
| Dancing | ||||||||||
| Lively [42] | USA | 31 | 19 (17–22) | Student-athletes | – | E | Pre-existing recurrent low back pain was defined as lumbar pain on at least two previous occasions that required the athlete to suspend participation in sports for at least one day | LB | LT | 3 |
| Field hockey | ||||||||||
| Haydt et al. [47] | USA | 90 (F) | 19 ± 1 (18–22) | NCAA Division III intercollegiate | – | Q | low back pain lasting more than 24 h, not associated with menstruation | LB | I | 56 |
| van Hilst et al. [26] | The Netherlands | T: 61 | Elite, highest level in their age category | 81 | Q | Pain, ache, or discomfort in the region of the lower back whether or not it extended from there to one or both legs (sciatica), lower back region was indicated as a shaded area in a drawn picture of the upper body | LB | 12-mo | 56 33 67 |
|
| 21 (M) | 17 (15–24) | |||||||||
| 40 (F) | 16 (14–19) | |||||||||
| Gymnastics | ||||||||||
| Lively [42] | USA | 21 | 19 (17–22) | Student-athletes | – | E | Pre-existing recurrent low back pain was defined as lumbar pain on at least two previous occasions that required the athlete to suspend participation in sports for at least one day | LB | LT | 10 |
| Swärd et al. [48] | Sweden | 24 (M) | Med: 23 (19–29) | Present or previous members of the Swedish national team | – | In | Previous or present pain in the thoracic or lumbar part of the back with a duration of 1 wk or more or recurrent pain irrespective of its duration | B | LT, PP | LT: 79, PP: 38 |
| Swärd et al. [46] | Sweden | 26 (M) | Med: 19 (16–25) | Current or recent members of the national team or the national junior team | – | Q | Previous or present pain located in the thoracic or lumbar spine with a duration of more than 1 wk, or recurrent pain irrespective of duration | B | LT I | 85 |
| 26 (F) | Med: 16 (14–25) | 65 | ||||||||
| Handball | ||||||||||
| Tunas et al. [31] | Norway | 190 (F) | 22 ± 3 (18–32) | Elite | 99 | Q | Pain, ache or discomfort in the lower back with or without radiation to one or both legs | LB | LT, 12-mo, 7-d | LT: 63, 12-mo: 59, 7-d: 26 |
| Orienteering | ||||||||||
| Bahr et al. [29] | Norway | 227 (M: 129, F: 98) | M: 24 ± 7 F: 23 ± 6 |
Qualified for national championships | 99 | Q | Pain, ache, or discomfort in the low back with or without radiation to one or both legs (sciatica) | LB | LT, 12-mo, 7-d | LT: 57, 12-mo: 50, 7-d: 19 |
| Baranto et al. [49] | Sweden | 18 | Med: 25 (20–35) | Swedish top male athletes, active at least since the age of 10 years | – | Q | Previous or present pain located in the thoraco-lumbar spine | B | LT | 56 |
| Rhythmic gymnastics | ||||||||||
| Hutchinson [33] | USA | 7 | 16 (15–17) | US national team members | DMR | – | B | 7-wk | 86 | |
| Rowing | ||||||||||
| Bahr et al. [29] | Norway | 199 (M: 131, F: 68) | M: 21 ± 6 F: 22 ± 5 |
Qualified for national championships | 100 | Q | Pain, ache, or discomfort in the low back with or without radiation to one or both legs (sciatica) | LB | LT, 12-mo, 7-d | LT: 63, 12-mo: 55, 7-d: 25 |
| Maselli et al. [28] | Italy | 133 (M: 107, F: 26) | Med: 19 (16–33) | National elite level, all athlete qualified for national championship, TV: 14 (6–20) h/wk | 32 | Q | Pain, ache, or discomfort in the low back with or without radiation to one or both legs (sciatica) | LB | LT, 1-yr, 1-mo | LT: 65, 1-yr: 41, 1-mo: 20 |
| Newlands et al. [27] | New Zealand | 76 (M: 46; F: 30) | M: 23 ± 4 F: 21 ± 4 |
Elite, represented New Zealand at a World Championship event in 2011, years of rowing: 8 ± 4 (M), 6 ± 3 (F) | 75 | Q | Pain, ache or discomfort in the low back with or without referral to the buttocks or legs that has been present for more than 1 wk and/or interrupted at least one training session | LB | 1-yr, 1-mo (monthly in a 1-year period) | 1-yr: 53, 1-mo: 6-25 |
| Ng et al. [45] | Australia | 130 (M) 235 (F) |
14–16 | Rowers who competed for independent boys and girls schools | 42 72 |
Q | Pain located between L1 and gluteal folds and this area of the body was shown in a visual manner | LB | LT, PP | LT: 94, PP: 65 LT: 80, PP: 53 |
| Perich et al. [53] | Australia | 221 (F), 90 intervention, 131 control group | 14–17 | TV: 7 h/wk school-based rowing programme | – | Q | – | LB | PP | 37 intervention group 32 rowing control group |
| Roy et al. [51] | USA | 23 (M) | 20.3 ± 1.3 | Varsity rowers | – | Q | A single or recurring incidence of low back pain during the past year which interfered with activities of daily living, including rowing or training activities | LB | 1-yr | 26 |
| Rugby | ||||||||||
| Iwamoto et al. [39] | Japan | 327 | (15–16) | High school | – | E | Non-traumatic low back pain that resulted in stopping playing rugby completely for at least 1 day | LB | LT I | 29 |
| Soccer | ||||||||||
| Brynhildsen et al. [34] | Sweden | 361 (F) | Med: 21 (14–36) | Swedish first league clubs | 85 | Q | Subjective feeling of back pain; if she had suffered from low back pain ever (previous) or during the last wk (current) | LB | LT, 7-d | LT: 42, 7-d: 32 |
| Çali et al. [52] | Turkey | T: 121 (M) | 23.8 ± 4.1 (16–34) | Professional players, Turkish Super league, TV: 6 d/wk, 90 min/training unit | – | E | – | LB | 12-mo | 31 |
| 12 goalkeeper | 33 | |||||||||
| 34 defender | 26 | |||||||||
| 52 midfielder | 37 | |||||||||
| 23 forward | 24 | |||||||||
| Lively [42] | USA | 153 | 19 (17–22) | Student-athletes | – | E | Pre-existing recurrent low back pain was defined as lumbar pain on at least two previous occasions that required the athlete to suspend participation in sports for at least one day | LB | LT | 1 |
| Swärd et al. [46] | Sweden | 31 (M) | Med: 21 (18–25) | Members of one of the two top-ranked first division soccer teams, the majority were members of the national team or the national under-21 team | – | Q | Previous or present pain located in the thoracic or lumbar spine with a duration of more than 1 wk, or recurrent pain irrespective of duration | B | LT I | 58 |
| Tunas et al. [31] | Norway | 277 (F) | 22 ± 4 (18–32) | Elite | 98 | Q | Pain, ache or discomfort in the lower back with or without radiation to one or both legs | LB | LT, 12-mo, 7-d | LT: 61, 12-mo: 57, 7-d: 24 |
| van Hilst et al. [26] | The Netherlands | 45 (M) | 18 (16–19) | Elite, highest level in their age category | 100 | Q | Pain, ache, or discomfort in the region of the lower back whether or not it extended from there to one or both legs (sciatica), lower back region was indicated as a shaded area in a drawn picture of the upper body | LB | 12-mo | 64 |
| Swimming | ||||||||||
| Lively [42] | USA | 84 | 19 (17–22) | Student-athletes | – | E | Pre-existing recurrent low back pain was defined as lumbar pain on at least two previous occasions that required the athlete to suspend participation in sports for at least one day | LB | LT | 2 |
| Tennis | ||||||||||
| Lively [42] | USA | 35 | 19 (17–22) | Student-athletes | – | E | Pre-existing recurrent low back pain was defined as lumbar pain on at least two previous occasions that required the athlete to suspend participation in sports for at least one day | LB | LT | 3 |
| Swärd et al. [46] | Sweden | 30 (M) | Med: 20 (17–25) | 20: ranked in the top 30 in Sweden, including members of the Davis Cup team 1984-85, and 10: ranked between 30 and 70 in Sweden | – | Q | Previous or present pain located in the thoracic or lumbar spine with a duration of more than 1 wk, or recurrent pain irrespective of duration | B | LT I | 50 |
| Track and field | ||||||||||
| Lively [42] | USA | 116 | 19 (17–22) | Student-athletes | – | E | Pre-existing recurrent low back pain was defined as lumbar pain on at least two previous occasions that required the athlete to suspend participation in sports for at least one day | LB | LT | 2 |
| Volleyball | ||||||||||
| Bahr [32] | Norway | 57 (M) | Qualified for main draw at FIVB World Tour Grand Slam tournament 2008 | 90 | Q | Pain, ache or soreness in the low back, with or without radiating pain in the gluteal area or the lower extremity | LB | 2-mo, 7-d | 2-mo: 46, 7-d: 32 |
|
| 58 (F) | 2-mo: 40, 7-d: 22 |
|||||||||
| Brynhildsen et al. [34] | Sweden | 205 (F) | Med: 22 (16–35) | Swedish first league clubs | 85 | Q | Subjective feeling of back pain; if she had suffered from low back pain ever (previous) or during the last wk (current) | LB | LT, 7-d | LT: 63, 7-d: 34 |
| Lively [42] | USA | 24 | 19 (17–22) | Student-athletes | – | E | Pre-existing recurrent low back pain was defined as lumbar pain on at least two previous occasions that required the athlete to suspend participation in sports for at least one day | LB | LT | 8 |
| Weight lifting | ||||||||||
| Baranto et al. [49] | Sweden | 21 | Med: 30 (18–40) | Swedish top male athletes, active at least since the age of 10 years | – | Q | Previous or present pain located in the thoraco-lumbar spine | B | LT | 71 |
| Wrestling | ||||||||||
| Baranto et al. [49] | Sweden | 13 | Med: 24 (22–41) | Swedish top male athletes, active at least since the age of 10 years | – | Q | Previous or present pain located in the thoraco-lumbar spine | B | LT | 77 |
| Lively [42] | USA | 61 | 19 (17–22) | Student-athletes | – | E | Pre-existing recurrent low back pain was defined as lumbar pain on at least two previous occasions that required the athlete to suspend participation in sports for at least one day | LB | LT | 3 |
| Swärd et al. [46] | Sweden | 29 (M) | Med: 20 (17–25) | National (or junior) team or were active in the First Division of the National Wrestling League | – | Q | Previous or present pain located in the thoracic or lumbar spine with a duration of more than 1 wk, or recurrent pain irrespective of duration | B | LT I | 69 |
B back, C cervical spine, NCAA National Collegiate Athletic Association, d day, DMR daily medical report, E examination, F female, FIVB Fédération Internationale de Volleyball, h hour, In interview, I Incidence, LB low back, L1 first lumbar vertebra, LT lifetime, M male, min minutes, mo month, Med median, N neck, PP point prevalence, Q questionnaire, SD standard deviation, T total, TH thoracic spine, TV training volume, UB upper back, UCI Union Cycliste Internationale, USA United States of America, US United States, wk week, yr year
aExcept where otherwise indicated