Table 2.

Results for treatment of visual field defects

Study	Study design	Aim/ objective	Sample size (n)	Population	Intervention	Time/ duration of intervention
Aimola et al. (2014)	RCT Parallel design	Evaluate the efficacy and feasibility of an unsupervised reading and exploration computer training	52 Intervention: 28 Control: 24	Mixed Ischemic stroke n = 39, hemorrhage n = 6, TBI n = 6, tumor n = 1 At least 3 months post stroke	Compensatory: Computer based reading and visual exploration training versus sham exploration task	Experimental group = 14 blocks of training per day. Control group = 10 blocks per day. One hour sessions for up to 10 weeks
Bainbridge and Reding (1994) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	RCT	To assess the effect of full field prisms for hemi‐field visual impairments	18	Stroke	Substitutive: 15 Δ prism versus hemifield prisms	Prism wear while awake for 4 weeks
Bergsma et al. (2012)	Cohort study	Determine whether peripheral training also causes improvement in color and shape perception and reading speed	12	Chronic stroke (6–102 months post stroke)	Restitutive: VRT	40× 1 hr sessions of training, For 10 weeks.
Bowers et al. (2014)	Double masked, multi‐center, randomized crossover trial	Evaluate efficacy of real relative to sham peripheral prism glasses	61	Stroke At least 3 months post stroke	Subsitutive: 57∆ prism placed above and below the visual axis versus sham (5∆). Horizontal versus oblique positioning	Each set of prisms were worn for 4 weeks. Measured at 6 months
Carter et al. (1983) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	RCT	To test the effect of cognitive skill remediation training versus control/ standard care	33	Stroke With or without visual field defect or neglect	Compensatory: Cognitive skill remediation training	30–40 min 3× weekly for 3–4 weeks
Freeman and Rudge (1987)	Prospective observational study	Identify the Orthoptists’ role in stroke management	76	Stroke	Advice (for field defect and inattention, n = 4) occlusion (n = 10), prisms (n = 7), registered blind (n = 2), observation (n = 20), glasses (n = 5)	Within 1 week post stroke. Follow‐up ranged from 1 week to 4 years
Gall and Sabel (2012)	Prospective non‐controlled trial	Examine whether increased visual functioning after VRT coincides with improved reading abilities	11	Mixed Infarct n = 7, hemorrhage n = 1, AVM n = 1, subarachnoid hemorrhage n = 1, encephalitis n = 1	Restitutive: VRT	30 min 2× daily, 6 days a week, for 6 months
Giorgi et al. (2009)	Cohort study	Evaluate Peli prisms as a low vision optical device for hemianopia in an extended wearing trial	23	Mixed Stroke n = 16, surgery n = 4, TBI n = 2, congenital n = 1	Subsitutive: 40∆ prism placed above and below the visual axis	Peli prisms worn for 6 weeks, 3 months and long‐term. “Long‐term” follow‐up not specified
Hayes et al. (2012)	Interventional case series	Evaluate functional changes following the NVT program for homonymous hemianopia after stroke	13	Stroke Within 2 weeks – 6 months post stroke	Compensatory: NVT	One hour per session, 3× per week for 7 weeks
Jacquin‐Courtois et al. (2013)	Prospective observational study	Test the effect of a compensatory eye movement training	7	Mixed Stroke n = 5 Tumor n = 2 Chronic field loss, approx. 2.9 years post stroke	Compensatory: Visual search	1× 30 min session
Jobke et al. (2009) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	Randomized, double blinded, crossover study	To compare extrastriate versus conventional VRT in patients with visual field loss	21	Mixed Stroke/ ischemia n = 10, cranio‐cerebral injury n = 3, brain surgery n = 3, tumor n = 1, meningitis n = 1	Restitutive: Extrastriate VRT versus Conventional VRT	Extrastriate 30 min daily for 90 days. Then crossover of conventional VRT for 90 days
Kasten et al. (1998) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	RCT, double blinded	To assess the effect of computer based training to treat partial blindness	19	Mixed Stroke n = 10, trauma n = 4, other n = 5	Restitutive: VRT	1 hr per day, 6 days per week for 6 months (total = 150 hr)
Kasten et al. (2007) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	RCT	To test the hypothesis that VRT does not benefit from co‐stimulation	23	Mixed stroke, ischemia, cerebral hemorrhage, vascular disease (n = 14 combined), trauma (n = 8), inflammation (n = 1)	Resititutive: Parallel co‐stimulation, moving co‐stimulation or single stimulus	All groups had 30 min 2× daily for 3 months
Lane et al. (2010)	Non‐randomized controlled trial	Explore the efficacy of a visual exploration training	42	Mixed Ischemic n = 28, hemorrhage n = 10, TBI n = 4	Compensatory: Visual exploration training Visual attention training	Exploration training = 40 min sessions, over 2–9 weeks. Attention raining = 30 min sessions, over 2–7 weeks.
Mannan et al. (2010)	Prospective observational study	Characterize changes in eye movements resulting from training	29	Mixed Infarct n = 22, hemorrhage n = 6, surgery n = 1, tumor n = 2 At least 3 months post stroke	Compensatory: Visual search training	20× 40 min sessions for 1 month
Marshall et al. (2010)	Longitudinal cohort	Determine whether visual field expansion occurs with VRT	7	Stroke	Restitutive: VRT using microperimetry	20–30 min 2× daily, 6 days a week, for 3 months
Mazer et al. (2003)	RCT	To compare driving performance after useful field of view retraining (UFOV) compared to traditional visuoperceptual retraining	84	Stroke	Compensatory UFOV versus commercially available computer based visuoperceptual retraining (control)	Both received 20 sessions (each session 30–60 min long) at a rate of 2–4 sessions per week
Mueller et al. (2007)	Prospective observational study	Evaluate the outcome of VRT in a larger sample	302	Mixed Stroke n = 214, trauma n = 43, tumor n = 34, AION n = 5	Restitutive: VRT	1 hr of training, 6 days a week, for 6 months
Nelles et al. (2001)	Prospective observational study	Investigate whether training eye movements would induce change in the neural activity of cortical visual areas	21 Controls: 23 health subjects	Stroke Infarct n = 16 Hemorrhage n = 5	Compensatory: Eyes fixating versus exploratory eye movements	30 min per session, 2× daily, for 4 weeks
Nelles et al. (2010)	Prospective observational study	Can the internet be used as a resource so that suitable patients can build‐up practice to improve	8	Ischemic stroke	Compensatory: Eye movement training	30 min session 1× daily for 4 weeks
Ong et al. (2012)	Longitudinal cohort study	To see if Eye‐search web based hemifield search training improves patients search time and “real world” outcomes	33	Stroke participants with right homonymous hemianopia Infarct n = 14, hemorrhage n = 3, AVM n = 1, unknown n = 15	Compensatory: OKN therapy ‐ “Read right”	20 min of therapy per day (suggested). Patients prompted to test reading speed after 5 hr of therapy accrued.
Ong et al. (2015)	Prospective observational study	Evaluate efficiency of eye movements following visual search training	78	Hemianopic patients with no neglect 77% = stroke patients (8% = tumor, 3% TBI, 13% = other)	Compensatory: Eye‐search scanning exercises online	11 days of therapy (length of each session not specified)
Pambakian et al. (2004)	Prospective observational study	Examine whether directing attention to ARV using a visuospatial cue also increases long‐term neural plasticity	31 (29 completed training)	Mixed Infarct n = 22, hemorrhage n = 6, surgery n = 1, tumor n = 2 At least 3 months post stroke.	Compensatory: Visual search training	20× 40 min sessions, in 1 month
Plow et al. (2010) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	RCT	To test the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation to enhance VRT	8	Stroke	Restitutive: VRT with active tDCS versus VRT with sham tDCS	VRT = 30 min 2× daily for 3 months Active tDCS = 2 mA/ min along with VRT sham tDCS = 30 seconds ramped down to 0 then turned off, along with VRT
Plow et al. (2012)	Pilot, double blinded RCT	Investigate whether training eye movements would induce change in the neural activity of cortical visual areas	12 (8 included in final analysis)	Mixed Stroke n = 10, surgical trauma n = 2 At least 3 months post stroke	Restitutive: VRT compared with active tDCS (control group received sham tDCS)	30 min of training, 3× a week, for 3 months.
Poggel et al. (2004) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	RCT	To assess whether or not attentional cueing improves VRT	20	Mixed post‐genicular lesions	Restitutive: VRT with attentional cueing versus VRT with no attentional cueing	30–35 min 2× daily, for 56 sessions lasting approx. 1 month
Poggel et al. (2007)	Retrospective analysis of a prospective clinical trial. Retrospective analysis of questionnaire	Assess the possible efficacy of tDCS combined with VRT	Trial = 19 questionnaire = 121	Mixed Infarct n = 15, vascular n = 3, TBI n = 1	Restitutive: VRT	30–35 min of training, 2× daily, for 6 months.
Pollock, Hazelton, & Brady (2011a)	Survey	To explore the current assessments, protocols, referrals, and treatments of visual problems after stroke by OTs	55	Occupational therapists	Visual field, eye movement disorders and visual neglect (scanning training, patching/ prisms, ADL training, reading aids/ magnifiers, information, environment modification)	45% of OTs said they would treat within 2 weeks of stroke. 75% said they would treat patients within 6 weeks of stroke. 38% said they would continue treatment up to 3 months
Pollock, Hazleton, & Brady (2011b)	Survey	To explore the current assessments, protocols, referrals, and treatments of visual problems after stroke by Orthoptists	14	Orthoptists	Visual field, eye movement disorders and visual neglect (scanning training, patching/ prisms, ADL training, reading aids/ magnifiers, information, environment modification)	Time of intervention not stated. 86% did not have a protocol/ management plan for visual treatment of stroke patients
Pollock et al. (2012a)	Cochrane systematic review	To determine the effects of interventions for visual field defects after stroke	13 studies n = 344	Mixed Stroke n = 285	Various (studies listed individually)	Resistutive n = 5, compensatory n = 5, substitutive n = 3.
Reinhard et al. (2005)	Prospective observational study	Examine if VRT is able to change absolute homonymous field defects	17	Mixed Ischemia n = 11, trauma/surgery n = 4, hemorrhage n = 2	Restitutive: VRT using scanning laser ophthalmoscope	1 hr of training, 6× per week, for 6 months.
Romano et al. (2008)	Retrospective analysis	Determine the effect of a visual rehabilitation intervention on visual field defects	161	Mixed stroke 84%, TBI 9%, surgery 3%, other/unknown 4%	Restitutive: VRT	30 min of training, 6 days per week, for 26–30 weeks.
Rossi et al. (1990) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	RCT	To see if Fresnel prisms improve visual perception	30	Stroke	Substitutive: 15 dioptre hemi‐circular Fresnel prisms applied to glasses along with standard rehabilitation	Worn all day for 4 weeks
Roth et al. (2009) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	RCT	Comparing explorative saccade and flicker training	30	Mixed stroke/ hemorrhage n = 26, other n = 4	Compensatory: exploratory eye scanning training Restitutive: flicker‐stimulation training	Both = 30 min 2× daily, 5 days a week for 6 weeks
Rowe et al. (2009a)	Prospective multicenter cohort trial	To profile the site of stroke, type and extent of field loss, treatment and outcome	915 n = 479 with field loss n = 151 with field loss as only complaint	Stroke	Compensatory: typoscope, orthoptic exercises, advice (awareness of visual field loss, reading strategies, scanning eye and head movements, use of lighting, compensatory head posture, and registration for visual impairment) Substitutive: Peli prisms, diplopia prisms, occlusion, low vision aids	Follow‐up between 2 weeks and 3 months Duration of individual treatments not specified
Sabel et al. (2004)	Prospective observational study	Evaluate the efficacy of VRT using different perimetry methods	16	Mixed Ischemia n = 11 Surgery n = 3 Hemorrhage n = 2 At least 15 months post stroke	Restitutive: VRT measured with different methods of perimetry: Tubinger, automated and scanner laser ophthalmoscope	Between 30 – 60 min per session, and performed between daily – 6 weeks
Sabel et al. (2013)	Prospective observational study	Investigate the role of residual vision in recovery	23	Stroke ‐ at least 1 month post stroke	Restitutive: VRT	6 months of training (length and duration of training sessions not explained)
Schmielau and Wong (2007)	Cohort study	To evaluate whether restoration of VF in patients with homonymous hemianopia is possible using the LRP	20	Mixed Infarction n = 11, hemorrhage n = 7, trauma n = 2	Restitutive: VRT using the Lubeck reaction perimeter	45 min of training, 2× a week. Average length of training = 8.2 months (range = 2–27 months)
Spitzyna et al. (2007) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	RCT	To see if optokinetic therapy improves test reading for hemianopic dyslexia	22	Mixed	Compensatory: optokinetic nystagmus inducing reading therapy	4 weeks of training (minimum of 400 min of rehabilitation) 20× 20 min sessions
Szlyk et al. (2005) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	Randomized crossover design	To assess the use of prisms for navigation and driving for patients with hemanopia	10	Mixed population injury involving occipital lobe only	Sustitutive: Gottlieb visual field awareness system 18.5 dioptre lens versus 20 Δ Fresnel prisms	VFAS = training of 4× 2–3 hr indoor sessions with LVA specialist and 8× 2 hr outdoor sessions behind the wheel Prisms were worn for 3 months
Weinberg et al. (1977) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	RCT	To test the effect of visual scanning training on reading related tasks	57	Stroke	Compensatory: visual scanning training	1 hr a day for 4 weeks (20 hr of training)
Weinberg et al. (1979) Article taken from cochrane review Pollock et al. (2012a)	RCT	To test the effect of visual scanning training on reading related tasks	53	Stroke	Compensatory: visual scanning training	1 hr a day for 4 weeks (20 hr of training)
Zihl and von Cramon (1979)	Prospective observational study	Present evidence that diminished visual function can be improved by systematic stimulation of impaired areas of the visual field.	12	Mixed Infarct n = 6, hemorrhage n = 2, tumor n = 3, hypoxia n = 1	Restitutive: VRT	1 hr of training per day. Total length of treatment not specified
Zihl and von Cramon (1982)	Prospective observational study	To test the hypothesize that recovery takes place at the level of the striate cortex	30	Mixed Vascular n = 24, surgery n = 6	Comparing restitutive VRT and compensatory eye movement training: Light detection versus Saccadic localization	Treatment started between 1–6 months of onset of field defect. Total length of treatment not specified.
Zihl and von Cramon (1985)	Retrospective case series (from a larger study)	To assess the recovery of visual field loss with VRT versus compensatory eye movement training	55 post hoc sample from n = 125	Mixed 80% Infarct 20% TBI At least 4 weeks post stroke	Compensatory: Exploratory visual search	Training performed between daily‐ 3×  weekly. Total length of treatment not specified. Followed up for at least 4 months post treatment
Zihl (1995)	Retrospective analysis	Investigate eye movement patterns in patients with hemianopic dyslexia	n = 50 before treatment assessment n = 20 after treatment assessment	Stroke 3–12 weeks post stroke	Compensatory: Optokinetic therapy	Not specified

Articles taken from Cochrane reviews are included in this table for information only and are not included in the overall review.