Table 1.
Standards for aging biomarkers in recent studies
| Standards | Researchers | Method of biological age | Aging biomarkers |
|---|---|---|---|
| Show significant changes with age | Hollingsworth et al,44 Damon,73 Webster and Logie,71 Borkan and Norris,38 Mooradian,55 Robert,65 Nakamura et al,57,58 Nakamura and Miyao,59 Ueno et al,69 Parentini et al,61 Ding and Kopchick,41 Kimura et al,46 and Klemera and Doubal31 | MLR,38,44,71 PCA,31,57–59,69 and KDM31 | Skin elasticity,44 systolic blood pressure,38,44,59,69,71 vital capacity,44 grip strength,44,46 vibrometer,44 light extinction test,44 visual acuity,44 auditory function,44 serum cholesterol,44,71 forced expiratory volume in 1 second,69,71 serum urine nitrogen,58,59,71 alkaline phosphatase,57,58,71 triglycerides,71 erythrocyte sedimentation rate,71 serum globulin,38,57 blood glucose,38,69 serum albumin,38,58,59 serum glutamic oxalacetic transaminase,57 total protein,57 phosphates,57 lymphocytes,58 serum creatinine,58 calcium,58 hematocrit,59 ratio of albumin to globulin,69 mean corpuscular hemoglobin,69 10-minute walk,46 functional reach,46 and one leg stand with eyes open46 |
| Not highly correlated with another biomarker | Hollingsworth et al,44 Damon,73 Webster and Logie,71 Borkan and Norris,38 Vasto et al,70 and Ueno et al69 | MLR38,44,71 and PCA31,57–59,69 | Skin elasticity,44 systolic blood pressure,38,44,59,69,71 vital capacity,44 grip strength,44,46 vibrometer,44 light extinction test,44 visual acuity,44 auditory function,44 serum cholesterol,44,71 forced expiratory volume in 1 second,69,71 serum urine nitrogen,58,59,71 alkaline phosphatase,57,58,71 triglycerides,71 erythrocyte sedimentation rate,71 serum globulin,38,57 blood glucose,38,69 serum albumin,38,58,59 ratio of albumin to globulin,69 and mean corpuscular hemoglobin69 |
| Monitor a basic mechanism of the aging process and not an effect of disease | Baker and Sprott,72 Mooradian,55 Parentini et al,61 Park et al,62 Sprott,67 Simm and Johnson,66 Jee et al,25 Mishra et al,54 Engelfriet et al,42 Le Couteur et al,47 Zhang et al,28 and Mooradian55 | PCA25,28,62 | Percent body fat,62 VO2 max, 25,62 waist circumference,62 forced expiratory volume in 1 second,25,62 systolic blood pressure,25,62 low-density cholesterol,62 blood urea nitrogen,62 serum albumin,62 erythrocyte sedimentation rate,62 hearing threshold,62 glycosylated hemoglobin,62 vertical jump,25 grip strength,25 whole-body reaction time,25 lateral stance,25 sit-and-reach test,25 soft lean mass,25 mitral annulus peak E anterior wall,28 intima-media thickness,28 cystatin C,28 D-dimer,28 and digital symbol test28 |
| Noninvasive or minimally invasive | Baker and Sprott,72 Robert,65 Karasik et al,45 Vasto et al,70 Simm and Johnson,66 Jee et al,25 Mishra et al,54 Le Couteur et al,47 Zhang et al,28 Mooradian,55 Hlatky et al74 and McClearn52 | PCA25,28 | VO2 max,25 forced expiratory volume in 1 second,25 systolic blood pressure,25 vertical jump,25 grip strength,25 whole-body reaction time,25 lateral stance,25 sit-and-reach test,25 soft lean mass,25 mitral annulus peak E anterior wall,28 intima-media thickness,28 cystatin C,28 D-dimer,28 and digital symbol test28 |
| Have high reproducibility in cross-species comparisons | Baker and Sprott,72 Robert,65 Nakamura et al,57 Nakamura and Miyao,59 Parentini et al,61 Vasto et al,70 Simm and Johnson,66 Ding and Kopchick,41 Kimura et al,46 Jee et al,25 Mishra et al,54 Le Couteur et al,47 and McClearn52 | PCA25,46,57,59 | Systolic blood pressure,25,59 grip strength,25,46 serum urine nitrogen,58,59,71 alkaline phosphatase,57,58,71 serum globulin,38,57 serum albumin,38,58,59 serum glutamic oxalacetic transaminase,57 total protein,57 phosphates,57 hematocrit,59 VO2 max,25,62 forced expiratory volume in 1 second,25,62 vertical jump,25,46 whole-body reaction time,25 lateral stance,25 sit-and-reach test,25 soft lean mass,25 10-minute walk,46 functional reach,46 and one leg stand with eyes open46 |
| Reflect physiological function | Robert,65 Hollingsworth et al,44 Ries,63 Webster and Logie,71 Borkan and Norris,38 Nakamura,75 Ringel and Chodzko-Zajko,64 McClearn,52 Karasik et al,45 Swindell et al,68 Park et al,62 Vasto et al,70 and Jee et al25 | MLR38,44,71 and PCA25 | Skin elasticity,44 systolic blood pressure,25,38,44,71 vital capacity,44 grip strength,44,46 vibrometer,44 light extinction test,44 visual acuity,44 auditory function,44 serum cholesterol,44,71 forced expiratory volume in 1 second,25,71 serum urine nitrogen,25,71 alkaline phosphatase,57,58,71 triglycerides,71 erythrocyte sedimentation rate,71 serum globulin,38,57 blood glucose,38,69 serum albumin,25,38 percent body fat,62 VO2 max,25,62 waist circumference,62 low-density cholesterol,62 erythrocyte sedimentation rate,62 hearing threshold,62 and glycosylated hemoglobin62 |
| Quantitative | Damon,73 Ries,63 Nakamura,75 Ringel and Chodzko-Zajko,64 and Karasik et al45 | ||
| Change at a rate reflecting the rate of aging | McClearn,52 Swindell et al,68 Sprott,67 Simm and Johnson,66 Jee et al,25 Mishra et al,54 Engelfriet et al,42 Le Couteur et al,47 Butler et al,39 and Ding and Kopchick41 | PCA25 | VO2 max,25 forced expiratory volume in 1 second,25 systolic blood pressure,25 vertical jump,25 grip strength,25 whole-body reaction time,25 lateral stance,25 sit-and-reach test,25 and soft lean mass25 |
| Better than CA | Miller,53 Sprott,67 Simm and Johnson,66 Butler et al,39 and Karasik et al45 | ||
| Display changes over a relatively short period | McClearn,51 Robert,65 Le Couteur et al,47 Zhang et al,28 and Hlatky et al74 | PCA28 | Mitral annulus peak E anterior wall,28 intima-media thickness,28 cystatin C,28 D-dimer,28 and digital symbol test28 |
| Measurable during a relatively short time interval | Baker and Sprott,72 Le Couteur et al,47 and Zhang et al28 | PCA28 | Mitral annulus peak E anterior wall,28 intima-media thickness,28 cystatin C,28 D-dimer,28 and digital symbol test28 |
| Highly reproducible | Robert,65 Nakamura et al,57,58 Nakamura and Miyao,59 McClearn,52 Hlatky et al,74 and Zhang et al28 | PCA28,57–59 | Systolic blood pressure,38,44,59,69,71 serum urine nitrogen,58,59,71 alkaline phosphatase,57,58,71 serum globulin,38,57 serum albumin,38,58,59 serum glutamic oxalacetic transaminase,57 total protein,57 phosphates,57 lymphocytes,58 serum creatinine,58 calcium,58 hematocrit,59 mitral annulus peak E anterior wall,28 intima-media thickness,28 cystatin C,28 D-dimer,28 and digital symbol test28 |
| Significant differences among individuals | Swindell et al,68 Kimura et al,46 and Zhang et al28 | PCA28,46 | Grip strength,44,46 10-minute walk,46 functional reach,46 one leg stand with eyes open,46 mitral annulus peak E anterior wall,28 intima-media thickness,28 cystatin C,28 D-dimer,28 and digital symbol test28 |
| Provide incremental prognostic information of clinical value to predict disease | Morrow and de Lemos,56 Hlatky et al,74 Majkić-Singh,49 and Karasik et al45 | ||
| Predict and improve the health span | López-Otín et al,48 Le Couteur et al,47 Ding and Kopchick,41 Butler et al,39 Miller,53 McClearn,52 and Robert65 |
Abbreviations: CA, chronological age; MLR, multiple linear regression; PCA, principal component analysis; KDM, Klemera and Doubal’s method.