Figure 11.

Effect encoding/retrieval stress on memory. Size of the square indicates the relative weight assigned to that study in the analysis. Error bars represent the 95% confidence interval of the effect. Points to the left of zero indicate a study-average impairment in memory, and points to the right of zero indicate a study-average enhancement in memory. This meta-analysis indicated that stress that impacted encoding, post-encoding, and retrieval phases of memory marginally impaired memory across all studies and paradigms.