TABLE I.
Literature review of static (anatomical) measures of the upper airway and dynamic measures of speech. The left column shows static measures of upper airway anatomical features, grouped by different general anatomical areas. The right column shows 2D dynamic RT-MRI measures of articulatory function. Measures investigated in the present study are marked using asterisks (*). Clinical applications are marked with a dagger (†).
| Static (anatomical) measures | Real-time dynamic measures |
|---|---|
| (*) Vocal tract | (*) 2D speech RT-MRI |
| (*)Vocal tract, vertical (VT-V) (Ref. 18) | Vocal tract cross-distances (Proctor) (Refs. 38 and 39) |
| (*)Vocal tract, horizontal (VT-H) (Ref. 18) | (*)Vocal tract cross-distances (Kim) (Ref. 40) |
| (*)Vocal tract, oral (VT-O) (Ref. 18) | (*)Vocal tract cross-distances (Bresch) (Ref. 41) |
| (*)Posterior cavity length (PCL) (Ref. 18) | Vocal tract area descriptors (Refs. 42 and 43) |
| (*)Anterior cavity length (ACL) (Ref. 18) | Vocal tract area+deformation (Refs. 41 and 44) |
| (*)Nasopharyngeal length (NPhL) (Ref. 18) | Tongue shaping (curvature) (Refs. 45–47) |
| (*)Lip thickness (LTh) (Ref. 18) | ROI intensity analysis for timing (Ref. 48) |
| (*)Oropharyngeal width(OPhW) (Ref. 18) | (†)Direct image analysis (Refs. 38 and 49–52) |
| Vocal tract length, curvilinear(VTL) (Ref. 18) | (†)Jaw height (Ref. 53) |
| Vocal tract length (Refs. 18–24) | Jaw angle (Refs. 42, 54, and 55) |
| Upper airway volume (Ref. 25) | (*)Lip aperture (Refs. 42, 54, and 55) |
| Vocal tract area function (Ref. 26)(*)Mandible(*)Angle (Ref. 27)(*)Length (Ref. 27)(*)Ramus depth (Ref. 27)(*)Gonion width (Ref. 27)(*)Condyle width (Ref. 27)Coronoid width (Ref. 27)Mental depth (Ref. 27)(†)Width, depth, height (Refs. 19, 20, 24, 27–30)(†)Volume (Ref. 25)Global head measurements(†)Head circumference (Ref. 21)Head length (Refs. 22, 24, and 30)Upper face height (Refs. 22 and 24)Lower face height (Refs. 22 and 24)(†)Total face height (Refs. 22, 24, and 31)Soft tissue volumes(†)Soft palate (Refs. 19, 20, and 25)(†)Tongue (Refs. 19, 20, 25, and 32–34)Lateral pharyngeal walls (Refs. 19 and 20)Total soft tissue (Refs. 19 and 34)(†)Adenoid (Ref. 25)(†)Tonsil (Ref. 25)Soft tissue areas and lengthsTongue area (Ref. 24)Tongue length (Refs. 24 and 29)(†)Pharyngeal depth/width (Ref. 35) | Velic aperture (Refs. 42, 54, and 55)(*)Tongue tip constriction degree (Refs. 42, 54, and 55)(*)Tongue dorsum constriction degree (Refs. 42, 54, and 55)(*)Tongue root constriction degree (Refs. 42, 54, and 55)Upper lip centroid (Refs. 42 and 56)Lower lip centroid (Refs. 42 and 56)Tongue centroid (Refs. 42 and 56)Tongue length (Refs. 42 and 56)Articulatory timing (audio+MRI) (Ref. 57)Shape of hard palate and larynx (Ref. 58)3D imaging of continuant soundsVocal tract area function (Refs. 59 and 60)Sleep apnea(†)Airway compliance (Ref. 61)Tongue motion (tagging MRI)(†)Tongue tip displacement (Ref. 62)(†)Average tongue tip velocity (Ref. 62)(†)Displacement of tongue body (Ref. 62)(†)PCA analysis of motion (Ref. 13)Velopharyngeal insufficiency(†)Lateral pharyngeal wall movement (Ref. 63)(†)Velar elevated position (Ref. 64)(†)Velar retracted position (Ref. 64)(†)Angle of elevation, angle of eminence (Ref. 65)(†)Velum thickness (Refs. 66 and 67) |
| Anterior tongue length (Ref. 22) | |
| Soft palate length (Refs. 22, 24, and 29) | |
| Velar length/height (Ref. 35) | |
| Levator veli palatini muscle… | |
| (†)Thickness (Ref. 36) | |
| (†)Length (Ref. 35) | |
| Hyoid bone | |
| Hyoid distance to… | |
| Nasion (Refs. 19 and 20) | |
| Sella (Refs. 19 and 20) | |
| Supramentale (Refs. 19 and 20) | |
| Posterior nasal spine (Ref. 21) | |
| Body depth (Ref. 37) | |
| Greater cornu length left (Ref. 37) | |
| Total length left (Ref. 37) | |
| Greater cornu width (Ref. 37) | |
| Hard palate | |
| (†)Hard palate length (Ref. 24, 29, and 31) | |
| Maxillary arch width (Ref. 24) | |
| Maxillary arch length (Ref. 24) |